By providing a basis for understanding the teaching/learning process, educational psychology deals with how people learn. By implication, it emphasizes the need to recognize diversity among learners. However, it is also true that people share certain common characteristics. Among these are basic psychological needs which are necessary for individuals to lead a full and happy life.
Major theories of learning:
i) Behaviorist theories which deal with various aspects of stimulus- response and reinforcement scheme;
ii) Cognitive theories which view the learner in relationship with the total environment; and
iii) Phenomenology which emphasizes the affective domain of learning.
Let us take up each of them in the given order and examine its contribution to curriculum development.
i) Behaviorism and curriculum
The behaviorist school, which represents traditional psychology, is rooted in a corresponding philosophical speculation about the nature of learning.
Essentially, learning is considered a habit-formation and teaching is regarded as arranging learning experiences in such a way as to promote desirable behavior. Further, behaviorism maintains that what is learnt in one situation can be transferred to other situations as well.
Broadly, behaviorists advocate that: behavior is likely to be influenced by the conditions under which learning takes place; attitudes to and abilities of learning can change or improve over time through the application of proper stimuli; learning experiences can be designed and controlled to create desired learning; selective reinforcement is essential; and rote learning and memorization of knowledge are unnecessary.
Having thus touched upon the crux of behaviorism, we shall now turn our attention to its contribution to curriculum development. It provides the following significant guidelines.
A curriculum, according to behaviorists, should be based on the following concerns:
i) Remedial measures, acquisition of skills, considerations of basic or advanced learning;
ii) Well-defined, short-term and long-term objectives;
iii) Appropriate instructional materials and media to suit the learner's abilities;
iv) Shaping behavior through prescribed tasks, phase by phase activities, close supervision of activities and positive reinforcement; and The Field of Curriculum
V) Diagnosing, assessing and reassessing the learners’ needs, objectives, activities, tasks and instruction with a view to improving the curriculum.
We can observe manifestations of these guidelines in the theories, principles or trends related to: individualized education (and to some extent, open system of education); instructional design and systems; teacher-training techniques such as simulation teaching, microteaching, competency-performance based teacher education; educational technology including programmed instruction (which provides, with modifications, a base for self- instructional materials in use in the distance mode of teaching/learning).
ii) Cognitivism and curriculum
Even contemporary behaviorists incorporate cognitive processes in their theories of learning. Because learning in schools/colleges emphasizes the cognitive domain, it follows that most educationists feel that learning is synonymous with cognitive development. As a corollary, a problem solving approach in teachingllearning gains currency.
But, if we take an actual teaching/learning situation into consideration we tend to realize that this learning model is incomplete and that something is lost in its processes of actual transfer in the classroom. In reality, the teaching/learning process boils down to the teacher talking predominantly and students mostly responding to what is said by the teacher.
What should be of concern to the curriculum specialists?
They should be aware of the fact that a school/college should be a place where students are not afraid of asking questions, making mistakes, taking cognitive risks and playing with ideas. Further colleges/schools should be more humane places where students can explore and fulfill their human potentials. Obviously, curriculum has to play a vital role to actually realize this objective.
iii) Phenomenology and curriculum
It emphasizes that learning must be explained in terms of the "wholeness" of the problem. Here you can draw a parallel with cognitivism. But what differentiates phenomenology from cognitivism is that the former stresses the affective and the latter the cognitive aspects of learning.
Because each individual has specific needs and interests related to his or her self-fulfillment and self-realisations, there can't be a generally prescribed humanistic curriculum. Humanistic learning may enhance the mental health of the learners, harmonize personal feelings among students and teachers, and improve various aspects of human awareness among students, teachers, and curriculum specialists, yet its processes rely mainly on personal experiences and subjective interpretations that leave them open to criticism. Therefore, there is a great need to examine and understand what is relevant in humanistic curricula.
Please note that most textbook writers tend to be cognition-oriented. However, one should propose that behaviourist components are needed for planning and developing a sound curriculum. Further, humanistic components of teaching and learning must also be incorporated into the curriculum. Let us say, therefore, that each theory of learning has something significant to contribute towards explaining various aspects of human behavior and learning.
Basic human needs and curriculum
Physical well-being and health are generally recognized and frequently dealt with through various programmes such as those on fitness, nutrition and health problems. Mental health needs such as those pertaining to acceptance, belonging, security and status have been widely studied but little emphasized in the area of curriculum.
In this sub-section, we shall touch upon just two points which concern the topic under consideration:
i) Self-actualization; and
ii) Developmental tasks.
Here, we shall discuss these and draw inferences as to how each one contributes to the enrichment of a curriculum.
i Self-actualization
The notion of self-actualization characterizes individuals’ need for self- fulfillment in life by actualizing/achieving their own potential. A curriculum should therefore provide learning activities that allow students to identify themselves with those things they can do well. It should also assist them to succeed in other activities that are difficult for them. Learners are thus helped to find personal meaning in the learning experience.
Those responsible for curriculum development must pay attention to the concept of self-actualization. We all recognize the importance of school/college and community based goals for learners. Self- actualization on the other hand includes satisfying the desire to know and understand in relation to personal needs and interest. Moreover it has been noticed that when personal purposes are ignored, learners seem to be less successful in meeting the set goals. If curricular plans reflect a balance between institutional and personal needs, the impact on both may be substantially enhanced.
ii) Developmental tasks
We can define a developmental task as a task which arises in relation to a certain period in the life of an individual, success in which leads to his/her happiness and to success in later tasks, while failure in it leads to unhappiness in the individual and difficulties in subsequent tasks. This fact is regarded as one of the most specific considerations in organizing tasks. The needs of individuals are governed by the stage of development and age they have reached, and also grow out of their need to respond to societal expectations. The implication is that educators/curriculum planners should understand behaviors manifested by a learner indicating her/his readiness and need to deal with a particular developmental task.As we facilitate the learners' success in these need tasks, their overall success can be ensured.
Further, in developing a curriculum, the development of an environment in which learners feel genuinely secure should be ensured. When a curriculum develops such an environment, learning takes place smoothly because the needs of students and what has been provided by the curriculum are complementary to each other.
In our discussion of the psychological foundations, we dealt with the contribution made by learning theories towards curriculum and also tried to see how much more effective a curriculum may be framed if we consider the nature of basic human need while forming it.
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