Principles of School Organization

Protection of Social Values
The first principal of School Organization is to protect social values . being a component of  the society , It must be preventive of general and specific aims of the society . 

Achievement of Specific Aims
The school must monitor the specific aims, effective and efficient teaching and developing with the  ideology of Pakistan  

Interest of individual differences of child 
all children in school does not have equal abilities so this factor should be kept in mind . and organization should be made in such away that each child get opportunity to develop their inner potentials. 

Co-operation with Society
A school can never go through progress until the individual of the society develop a positive attitude toward the school. 

The organization must be flexible
It should be flexible and balanced because the society always tends to changes  and the need of the human being also changes with time. 

Comprehensiveness
Each and every aspect of the activity should be comprehensive and a clear picture of the organization should be presented  

Utility 
 Utilization of all the possible resources help in achieving the goals 

Adaptability
It can facilitate our activities . The power of adaptability is the key of success 

Professional Growth
Teacher and other worker should be given a proper training facilitation for better performance 

Accountability 
Analysis of the activities of the staff give a positive result to organization. The principal should encourage hard worker and and a sign of alertness for the rest.  

Simplicity
Medium instruction should be in easy way. 

Reforms / Amendments  
The door for reforms and ammendment shuld always be open        

Unit 1: School Organization and Management

Meaning of Management
It is a social process which is designed to insure co-operation , participation , intervention, and involvement of other people in the effective achievement of determined objectives
Management is a fundamental instrument and economical use of time , money and materials.
It is a process by which a manger can change the behaviour of his/her co-worker to achieve the objective of organization.

Concept of management in school
In the past management techniques were applied in education which was enough to run a small size institution. The rapid expansion in educational institutions have led to the public authorities, assuming an increased role in managing educational institutes. They have complex and difficult task on their hand. They have to solve the problem

• Defining the purpose of education
• The conflict between invasion and tradition
• The tension between different section of staff and students
• Attaining a balance among different objectives of education in each stage. 

what is organization ?

Its is a formal relation co-ordination , co-operation between various activities. 

When two or more than two individuals struggle for common goals and objectives it form and organization . This type of struggle may be temporary of permanent. Organization usually contain distribution of work , communication and discipline. The success of an organization depend upon the achievement of goals and objectives and the standard of work.
Meaning :
a) Organization means way of arranging .  How to arrange various materials inside the school. How these can be used in a better way for educational objectives.
b) It means a pre-planned programme for institute to rum it in a peaceful , pleasant educational atmosphere.
c) To arrange all the  activities of school with mutual co-operation and understanding. this will lead to better training of the individual .
Scope of School Organization
The scope of school organization is very vast. It includes; Role of School Plant, organization of school life, Relationship of the school and community , Co-curricular activities, the school curriculum.
Role of School Plant
It is a comprehensive term which means, building, playground, furniture, equipment, library, laboratory etc. all those physical facilities which are required for achieving various objectives of the school organization constitutes the school plant. Optimum utilization of school plant helps in achieving fruitful results and desired objectives.
 Relationship of the School and Community
The school bear the most intimate relationship with the community.The modern idea is that the school as a community center. Education is not to be regarded as an isolated activity.
Functions should be arranged that can attract community toward school. Parent teacher relationship should be encouraged . Adult participation at evening time in various social activities can put a good impact educational process and motivation.
Co-curricular Activities 
On of the most important activity of the school organization training of its pupil in the gracious art of living . That the art living is the most comprehensive concept than the organization of knowledge.
Co-curricular activities involves games, sports, scouting, hiking, debates, essay writing, workshops, symposiums, Naat competitions, discussion, seminars which play their important role for comprehensive development of the personality of the child.
The School Curriculum.

Our most important objective of the school organization is achieved through proper curriculum . The primary objective of which is the transmission of tradition  and preparation of social ideals. 

it is sad commentary on education of Pakistan that the ideology  , culture , myth , and religion have found no prominent place in our schools .  

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Mid Term Paper Fall 2014 :Perspective of Education in Pakistan

Time : 1.5    B.Ed
Marks :15
Note : Attempt all the questions
Q.1. Explain the main feature of Muslim education before the British rule ?
Q.2. Discuss the impact of Aligarh educational movement in the sub continent ?
Q.3. Explain the achievement of National Education policy 1972-80 ?

Impact of British rule on the social – economic condition of the Muslims.

The War of Independence 1857 ended in disaster for the Muslims. The British chose to believe that the Muslims were responsible for the anti-British uprising; therefore they made them the subject of ruthless punishments and merciless vengeance. The British had always looked upon the Muslims as their adversaries because they had ousted them from power. With the rebellion of 1857, this feeling was intensified and every attempt was made to ruin and suppress the Muslims forever. Their efforts resulted in the liquidation of the Mughal rule and the Sub-continent came directly under the British crown. 
After dislodging the Muslim rulers from the throne, the new rulers, the British, implemented a new educational policy with drastic changes. The policy banned Arabic, Persian and religious education in schools and made English not only the medium of instruction but also the official language in 1835. This spawned a negative attitude amongst the Muslims towards everything modern and western, and a disinclination to make use of the opportunities available under the new regime. This tendency, had it continued for long, would have proven disastrous for the Muslim community. 

Muslim educational Movement during the British rule in the sub-continent

Urdu-Hindi Controversy 
During the last days of the Muslim rule, Urdu emerged as the most common language of the northwestern provinces of India. It was declared the official language, and all official records were written in this language. In 1867, some prominent Hindus started a movement in Banaras in which they demanded the replacement of Urdu with Hindi, and the Persian script with the Deva Nagri script, as the court language in the northwestern provinces. The reason for opposing Urdu was that the language was written in Persian script, which was similar to the Arabic script, and Arabic was the language of the Quran, the Holy Book of the Muslims. The movement grew quickly and within a few months spread throughout the Hindu population of the northwestern provinces of India. The headquarters of this movement were in Allahabad. 
This situation provoked the Muslims to come out in order to protect the importance of the Urdu language. The opposition by the Hindus towards the Urdu language made it clear to the Muslims of the region that Hindus were not ready to tolerate the culture and traditions of the Muslims. 
The Urdu-Hindi controversy had a great effect on the life of Sir Syed Ahmad Khan. Before this event he had been a great advocate of Hindu-Muslim unity and was of the opinion that the "two nations are like two eyes of the beautiful bride, India". But this movement completely altered his point of view. He put forward the Two-Nation Theory, predicting that the differences between the two groups would increase with the passage of time and the two communities would not join together in anything wholeheartedly. 

Aligarh Movement [1858-98] 
The War of Independence 1857 ended in disaster for the Muslims. The British chose to believe that the Muslims were responsible for the anti-British uprising; therefore they made them the subject of ruthless punishments and merciless vengeance. The British had always looked upon the Muslims as their adversaries because they had ousted them from power. With the rebellion of 1857, this feeling was intensified and every attempt was made to ruin and suppress the Muslims forever. Their efforts resulted in the liquidation of the Mughal rule and the Sub-continent came directly under the British crown. 
After dislodging the Muslim rulers from the throne, the new rulers, the British, implemented a new educational policy with drastic changes. The policy banned Arabic, Persian and religious education in schools and made English not only the medium of instruction but also the official language in 1835. This spawned a negative attitude amongst the Muslims towards everything modern and western, and a disinclination to make use of the opportunities available under the new regime. This tendency, had it continued for long, would have proven disastrous for the Muslim community. 
Seeing this atmosphere of despair and despondency, Sir Syed launched his attempts to revive the spirit of progress within the Muslim community of India. He was convinced that the Muslims in their attempt to regenerate themselves, had failed to realize the fact that mankind had entered a very important phase of its existence, i.e., an era of science and learning. He knew that the realization of the very fact was the source of progress and prosperity for the British. Therefore, modern education became the pivot of his movement for regeneration of the Indian Muslims. He tried to transform the Muslim outlook from a medieval one to a modern one. 
Sir Syed's first and foremost objective was to acquaint the British with the Indian mind; his next goal was to open the minds of his countrymen to European literature, science and technology. 
Therefore, in order to attain these goals, Sir Syed launched the Aligarh Movement of which Aligarh was the center. He had two immediate objectives in mind: to remove the state of misunderstanding and tension between the Muslims and the new British government, and to induce them to go after the opportunities available under the new regime without deviating in any way from the fundamentals of their faith. 
Keeping education and social reform as the two planks of his program, he launched the Aligarh Movement with the following objectives: 
1. To create an atmosphere of mutual understanding between the British government and the Muslims. 
2. To persuade Muslims to learn English education. 
3. To persuade Muslims to abstain from politics of agitation. 
4. To produce an intellectual class from amongst the Muslim community. 
Fortunately, Syed Ahmad Khan was able to attract into his orbit a number of sincere friends who shared his views and helped him. Among them were well-known figures like Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk, Nawab Viqar-ul-Mulk, Hali, Shibli, Maulvi Nazir Ahmad, Chiragh Ali, Mohammad Hayat, and Zakaullah. Above all, his gifted son Syed Mahmud, a renowned scholar, jurist and educationist, was a great source of help to him. 
Syed Ahmad also succeeded in enlisting the services of a number of distinguished English professors like Bech, Morison, Raleigh and Arnold who gave their best in building up the Aligarh College into a first-rate institution. 
A brief chronology of Syed Ahmad's efforts is given below: 
1859: Built Gulshan School in Muradabad. 
1863: Set up Victoria School in Ghazipur. 
1864: Set up the Scientific Society in Aligarh. This society was involved in the translation of English works into the native language. 
1866: Aligarh Institute Gazette. This imparted information on history; ancient and modern science of agriculture, natural and physical sciences and advanced mathematics. 
1870: Committee Striving for the Educational Progress of Muslims. 
1875: Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental School (M. A. O.), Aligarh, setup on the pattern of English public schools. Later raised to the level of college in 1877 and university in 1913. 
1886: Muhammadan Educational Conference. This conference met every year to take stock of the educational problems of the Muslims and to persuade them to get modern education and abstain from politics. It later became the political mouthpiece of the Indian Muslims and was the forerunner of the Muslim League. 
Besides his prominent role in the educational uplift of the Muslims, Syed Ahmad Khan's writings played an important role in popularizing the ideals for which the Aligarh stood. His essay on "The Causes of Indian Revolt in 1858", and other writings such as "Loyal Muhammadans of India", Tabyin-ul-Kalam and "A Series of Essays on the Life of Muhammad and Subjects Subsidiary Therein" helped to create cordial relations between the British Government and the Indian Muslims. They also helped to remove misunderstandings about Islam and Christianity. 
It was from this platform that Syed Ahmad Khan strongly advised the Muslims against joining the Hindu dominated Congress. He was in favor of reserved seats for Muslims and also promoted the idea that Hindus and Muslims are two distinct nations. This idea led to the Two-Nation Theory. 
Syed Ahmad Khan's Aligarh Movement played a significant role in bringing about an intellectual revolution among the Indian Muslims. Thus it succeeded in achieving its major objectives, i.e. educational progress and social reform. His efforts earned Sir Syed the title "Prophet of Education".
Deoband Movement [1866-1947] 
Apart from the Aligarh Movement, there were many other forces working in the Sub-continent that contributed to national consolidation. These were in the form of institutions that grew up within the country. These institutions occasionally held views in opposition to the Aligarh leadership, but they all worked towards a common goal; national awakening and integrity. 
Most important of these institutions was the seminary at Deoband. The original idea of establishing a madrasa for teaching religious subjects was that of a practicing sufi and a reputed saint, Haji Muhammad Abid of Deoband. He became the honorary patron and manager of the seminary, and when ample funds became available, Maulana Muhammad Yaqub, a leading educationist, was appointed as the headmaster. On April 14, 1866, the madrasa started functioning in a small mosque. 
The madrasa at Deoband followed the Madrasa-i-Rahimiyah in its emphasis on Hadith, but it also incorporated many features of the new educational institutions established by the British, e.g., division of students in regular classes, attendance registers and written examinations. By 1931, 900 students were enrolled in the madrasa, including 43 foreign students. 
Maulana Muhammad Qasim Nanotvi, who joined the madrasa few years after its establishment, was very active during the war of 1857, and for a period of time even established his own government in the area. On the suppression of the revolt by the British, Maulana Rashid Ahmad Gangohi, one of the Maulana's companions, had to spend several months in jail, while their spiritual teacher Haji Imdad Ullah had to seek refuge in Mecca. 
Maulana Mahmud-ul-Hasan, who remained head of the institution for 23 years, encouraged contacts between Aligarh and Deoband. In 1920, the Maulana established the Jami'ah Milliyah for students who had discontinued studies at Aligarh during the Non-Cooperation Movement. The Jami'ah incorporated many features of Deoband. 
Another personality associated with Deoband was Maulana Ubaid Ullah Sindhi. He figured in the "Raishmi Roomal Tehrik" launched by Maulana Mahmud-ul-Hasan and left India for Afghanistan during the World War I to organize actions against the British. He was appointed as Home Minister in the provisional government of India formed at Kabul. However, after the failure of the scheme, he proceeded to Moscow and then from Turkey to Mecca. 
Deoband has invariably remained as the central institution catering to requirements of religious education of the Muslim community all over Sub-continent. To a certain extent, it also played the role of a unifying force for them, since apart from the opposition of the Deobandi teachers and students, so many ulema from the same institution supported Quaid-i-Azam, and took active part in the Pakistan Movement under the guidance of Maulana Shabbir Ahmad Usmani. 

Anjuman Himayat-i-Islam [1884-1947] 
For a thousand years, Lahore had been a great cultural and intellectual center of the Muslims. Under the Mughals, Lahore boasted of rapid progress in the domains of education and learning. But towards the end of the Muslim rule in India, the Sikhs devastated large areas of Punjab. The annexation of Punjab brought peace to the region, but failed to create conditions conducive to the growth of intellectual and academic activities. The War of Independence of 1857 added to the woes and worries of the Indian Muslims. The Muslims refused to acquire modern education. 
Towards the close of 19th century, the impact of Sir Syed's Aligarh Movement was felt all over the Sub-continent and Punjab was no exception. In March 1884, Maulana Qazi Hamid-ud-Din invited his pupil Maulvi Ghulam Ullah Qasuri and a number of other public-spirited persons to a small gathering and set up the Anjuman Himayat-i-Islam. 
On September 22, 1884, the establishment of the Anjuman was formally announced and Qazi Hamid-ud-Din was elected its first president. The Anjuman decided to work towards the following aims and objectives: 
1. To arrange for the religious and general education of Muslim boys and girls. 
2. To propagate and defend Islam against the Christian missionaries and Hindu revivalists. 
3. To counteract the propaganda against Islam through speeches and publications. 
A team of selfless workers associated themselves to the cause of the Anjuman. Among them were Nawab Sir Fateh Ali Khan Qazilbash, Mian Sir Muhammad Shafi, Sir Muhammad Iqbal, Sir Abdul Qadir, Dr. Khalifah Shuja-ud-Din and a host of others. 
The Anjuman established educational institutions in arts, sciences and technology for men and women as well as orphanages for helpless Muslims, to which widows' homes were later added. The Moplah orphans, the victims of Bihar and Quetta earthquakes, and later the destitute children and widows of the 1947 holocaust, found shelter at these orphanages. 
In 1885, the Risala-i-Anjuman Himayat-i-Islam made its appearance, publishing the principles of Islam. In 1892, the Anjuman established the Islamia College at Lahore. This was later elevated to degree level in 1903. The contribution of the college to the general Muslim awakening has been great. Its students played an important role in the Muslim national movement in Punjab. In 1939, the Anjuman established the Islamia College for Girls. 
Of these services in the field of education, the Anjuman had the greatest impact on Muslim society and politics. In 1928, the Anjuman expanded its press and published standard works on religious and literary themes, and modern subjects like geography, physical sciences and economics. A landmark in the history of the Anjuman publication was the production of an absolutely correct text of the Holy Quran.
Nadva-tul-'Ulema of Lucknow [1894-1947]
This institution came into existence in 1894 as a result of the efforts of some religious minded government officials, ulema, and sufis, who wished to bring the ulema together and remove sectarian differences. The main work of the organization was the establishment of a Dar-ul-Uloom at Lucknow. For some time Shibli Nomani, Syed's co-worker for many years, was associated with the institution. Under his influence it gained importance, but in 1914 he was forced to resign. 
Shibli Nomani wrote extensively on Islam, highlighting those periods and personalities that offered guidance, and provided inspiration to the Muslims, enabling them to take their proper place in the world. His writings include the series "Heroes of Islam". The first book of this series was "Al-Mamoon", a biography of Mamoon-ur-Rasheed. Other books in the series included the biographies of Imam Abu Hanifa, Imam Ghazali and Maulana Roomi. 
Through his writings, Shibli tried to refute western allegations against Islam and Muslims. His Tarajjum gave a fairly complete account of the steps taken by the Muslims in the heyday of their glory, and incorporated into Arabic, the fruits of the learning of Greece, Iran, and India etc. He took great pains to pick out and train promising youth to carry on his work and spread his message. His basic purpose remained to train and educate Muslim youth so that they could unite and lead their nation out of despondency. 
A magnificent building was constructed for the Dar-ul-Uloom with a grant from the State of Bhawalpur. The tradition of training in literary craftsmanship and style of modern Arabic was inherited by the institution. The Dar-ul-Musannifin, or "Academy of Authors", at Azamgarh, manned by the former students of the Nadva, is a byproduct of the institution.

Introduction of Western education during the British rule

Colonial Era

The colonial era saw huge differences of opinion among the colonialists themselves about education for Indians. This was divided into two schools - the orientalists, who believed that education should happen in Indian languages (of which they favoured classical or court languages like Sanskrit or Persian) or utilitarians (also called anglicists) like Thomas Babington Macaulay, who strongly believed that India had nothing to teach its own subjects and the best education for them should happen in English. Thomas Babington Macaulay introduced English education in India, especially through his famous minute of February 1835. He called an educational system that would create a class of anglicised Indians who would serve as cultural intermediaries between the British and the Indians. Macaulay succeeded in implementing ideas previously put forward by Lord William Bentinck, the governor general since 1829. Bentinck favoured the replacement of Persian by English as the official language, the use of English as the medium of instruction, and the training of English-speaking Indians as teachers. He was inspired by utilitarian ideas and called for "useful learning." However, Bentinck's ideas were rejected by the Court of Directors of the East India Company and he retired as governor general.
Frykenberg examines the 1784 to 1854 period to argue that education helped integrate the diverse elements Indian society, thereby creating a new common bond from among conflicting loyalties. The native elite demanded modern education. The University of Madras, founded in 1857, became the single most important recruiting ground for generations of ever more highly trained officials. This exclusive and select leadership was almost entirely "clean-caste" and mainly Brahman. It held sway in both the imperial administration and within princely governments to the south. The position of this mandarin class was never seriously challenged until well into the twentieth century
In 1857 three universities were established in the "presidency" cities of Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras, producing not only the subordinate bureaucrats as intended but also hundreds of university graduates wanting to take up higher education in the social sciences, humanities, and natural sciences.

Main Features of Muslim Education System in India

Muslim education system was essentially religious in character. It was patronized by the Muslim rulers who held orthodox views regarding perpetuating Muslim faith in lands they invaded and settled.

The educational institutions they founded became strongholds of Muslim orthodoxy. The sole aim of Muslim education became spread of Islam, perpetuation and preservation of Muslim culture.

Religious Influence

The education of this period was profoundly influenced by Islam. Every Muslim sought education for the purpose of searching for knowledge and for religious purposes there is direct evidence of the influence of Islam on the education of this period. Students were required to memorise the Koran. Importance was attached to study of Islam. This religious influence upon education was positive proof of the communal attitude of Muslim rulers.

Royal Patronage/ Encouragement of State 

The Muslim sovereigns had a very keen interest in the education of their youths so they founded schools, colleges, and libraries at places where they settled or brought under their rule. Stipends and scholarship were offered to the needy 2nd deserving. Orphanages were raised to help the poor.

The Slave and Tughlak dynasties patronised education very much. They established Madarsahs (seats of higher learning) in its capitals. For example, Feroz Tughlak endowed thirty colleges & most famous of these was Madarsahi Feroz Shahi.

It was a residential university established near Hauz-Khas. Professors and students required residing in the university and conduct government expense. The ruler spent 36 lakhs tanks every year.

Lodis also did a great deal to serve the cause of Muslim education. But the greatest patrons were the Mughal emperors. The credit for organising school and university education on sounder lines goes to Akbar, the Great.

Colleges at Agra and Fatehpur Sikri, in Gujarat and in other provinces were established on his initiative. Curricula were reconstructed and reformed. Hindus and Muslims were treated on equality basis.

Education Urbanized

The Muslim system of education was thus restricted not only to the concerned section of the society, but it did not spread outside the urban areas. It was round about the capitals where the Muslim people mostly lived and so it was in the cities or big towns that educational institutions flourished.

No attention was paid by any Muslim rulers towards educating the masses that lived in the rural areas. By the end of the 15th century A.D. Muslims in India appeared a 'little more than an armed garrison in a foreign country.

Sectarianism

It was only in the days of Akbar that we have the state offering equal opportunities of education to all sections of the society. In all other sovereignties the education system was meant for the good of the Muslim people.

Even when the doors of colleges were open to Hindus, they were not treated on equal footing. The Maktabs and Madarsahs were established to educate the Muslim youth in general-the youth that could help the rulers in governance and administration.

The elementary education was given not only in Maktabs but in Dargahs and Khanqahs also. The very atmosphere of these elementary schools was religious and religious education was at the base of Muslim education. These schools were mostly single teacher schools. Maulvis were in charge of these schools. The education was free. The local community or the state financed the schools.

Madarsahs and Higher Education

The word Madarsahs derived from the Arabic word 'Dars' meaning a lecture. Madarsahs therefore was centres of learning where a scholar delivered lectures to the eager students. The teaching method at the Madarsah was (But students were encouraged to make self-studies in libraries established for that purpose.

A madarsah was an institution of higher learning equivalent to a modern college. A student after acquiring primary and secondary education in a Maktab proceeded to a Madarsah.

Such seats learning were scattered all over thecountry. Those at Agra, Jaunpur,Lucknow,Delhi, Lahore, Multan, Sialkot, Ajmer andMurshidabadwere of great renown. To these, students flocked. Some of the seats of learningspecialised inone particular branch of learning only.

Others were established to teach literature, grammar, jurisprudence, logic, rhetoric, theology, metaphysics, law and medicine.

Among those that specialised in learning in some special fields were the following Madarsahs: (a) Delhi School of Shah Waliullah specialising in Hadi (Traditions), (b) Farangimahal School at Lucknow specialising in jurisprudence, (c) Sialkot School in grammar, (d) Rampur School in medicine, and (e) Agra Madarsah in medicine.

Students to these seats of learning were admitted to become learned scholars in the special branches of learning. They were given a fixed daily allowance for their maintenance as we learn from the traditional Madarsahi Feroz Shahi.

There was a close contact between the teacher and the taught. The teachers were required to reside in the college campus so that they could be available to the students at all hours.

These colleges were financed by the state. Some noble personages also contributed to the maintenance of the Madarsahs. The medium of instruction at all these colleges was Persian. Arabic was taught as a sacred language of the scriptures.

Female education in the Muslim period did not develop very much; yet there were some Madarsahs for women. Miasuddin Khilji of Malwa had one such college at Saranspur which specialised in arts and crafts as subjects of study.

Initiation Ceremony

Just as we had Vidyarambha Sanskar or Aksharasrikarna which was an initiation ceremony at the commencement of primary education in the ancient Indian system, so we had Bismillahkhani or maktab ceremony for beginning the education of a Muslim boy.

The age at which Vidyarambha Sanskar took place was generally five. Similarly, in the Muslim system the age was 4 years, 4 months, and 4 days. It was performed on this day in case of Humayun.

If the boy did not like to pronounce these, he was asked in pronounce Bismiilah and with this his education was considered to have started. In the case of a girl student, a blessing known as Zafarshani was written for her on a colored paper.

Discipline

Just as we had hard and strict rules and regulations governing the life of a student in the Gurukulas or in the Viharas, so we had very strict rules in Maktabs and Madarsahs.

Pupils were generally well-behaved, morally strong and humble. Whenever a pupil was found breaking rules of conduct, he was punished adequately. The type and manner of imposing punishment was left to the discretion of the teacher. Sometimes students were inhumanly punished.

The reason behind such a harsh treatment was not vengeance but correction and preservation of discipline among others. However, such punishment was not given to a Brahmachari or a Pabbajja.

The Teacher-Student Relationship

In ancient India the teacher was treated by his student as father, king and God. He was to serve him like a son, suppliant and slave. No progress in knowledge was possible without serving the teacher.

These traditions went on being observed. In the Muslim period also the student was always humble and polite to his teacher and served him whole-heartedly.

The Maulavi always regarded the student as his son. He had a constant touch with him and thus influenced his personality development. There was "mutual reverence, confidence and communion of life."

Teaching Methods

In ancient India recitation and recapitulation were the two ways of leaning a material. Memorisation was resorted to. Learning in ancient times had to be at the tip of the tongue. In medieval times the student had to take recourse to rote learning.

The child was expected to learn by rote Qalma and verses of Quran even though he did not understand them. Many of these things were above his understanding power.

He was simply required to pronounce the verses correctly. The teacher in the Madarsahs used lecture method. Such, however, was not the case in ancient times when discussions and debates were adopted, as a rule, for acquiring learning.

 Arabic and Persian

During this period, special stress was laid on the teaching of Arabic and Persian, which were made the media of education by Muslim rulers. Knowledge of these two languages was essential for securing employment in government offices consequently; Hindus too began to learn Arabic and Persian.

 Development of History-Writing

By initiating the writing of the history of their period, Muslim rulers helped to develop the art of writing history. Both Mughal and Muslim rulers commissioned the writing of the histories of their period or reigns among the most famous of these are Babar Nama, Akbar Nama, etc.

Historical Background of education in the Indian subcontinent

The history of education in the South Asia began with teaching of traditional elements such as Indian religions, Indian mathematics, Indian logic at early Hindu and Buddhist centres of learning such as Taxila (in modern-day Pakistan) and Nalanda(in India) before the common era. Islamic education became ingrained with the establishment of the Islamic empires in the Indian subcontinent in the Middle Ages while the coming of the Europeans later bought western education to colonial India. A series of measures continuing throughout the early half of the 20th century ultimately laid the foundation of education in the Republic of India, education in Pakistan and much of South Asia.
Early History
Early education in India commenced under the supervision of a guru.^[1] Initially, education was open to all and seen as one of the methods to achieve Moksha, or enlightenment. As time progressed, due to superiority complexes, the education was imparted on the basis of caste and the related duties that one had to perform as a member of a specific caste.^[1] The Brahmans learned about scriptures and religion while the Kshatriya were educated in the various aspects of warfare.^[1] The Vaishya caste learned commerce and other specific vocational courses while education was largely denied to the Shudras, the lowest caste.^[1] The earliest venues of education in India were often secluded from the main population.^[1] Students were expected to follow strict monastic guidelines prescribed by the guru and stay away from cities in ashrams.^[2] However, as population increased under the Gupta empire centres of urban learning became increasingly common and Cities such as Varanasi and the Buddhist centre at Nalanda became increasingly visible

 Education before the British rule , advent of Muslim rule and introduction of Muslim education in the sub-continent

Pakistan traces its history of education to the advent of Islam and Islamic/Arabic culture to the Indian subcontinent with the invasion of Muhammad bin Qasim in Sind in 712 A.D.. By that time, the Arabs had already distinguished themselves not only as conquerors and administrators over vast territories in the Middle East and North Africa but even more significantly as creators of a culture replete with literature, art, architecture, and religious studies. With the establishment of Muslim rule at Delhi in 1208 A.D., the Islamic culture made extensive inroads on the subcontinent, converting a quarter of its population to Islam over the next five centuries.

With the advent of Islam in India the traditional methods of education increasingly came under Islamic influence.^[16] Pre-Mughal rulers such as Qutb-ud-din Aybak and other Muslim rulers initiated institutions which imparted religious knowledge.^[16] Scholars such as Nizamuddin Auliya and Moinuddin Chishti became prominent educators and established Islamic monasteries.^[16]Students from Bukhara and Afghanistan visited India to study humanities and science.^[16]

Islamic institution of education in India included traditional madrassas and maktabs which taught grammar, philosophy, mathematics, and law influenced by the Greek traditions inherited by Persia and the Middle East before Islam spread from these regions into India.^[17] A feature of this traditional Islamic education was its emphasis on the connection between science and humanities.^[17] Among the centres of education in India was 18th century Delhi was the Madrasa Rahimiya under the supervision of Shah Waliullah, an educator who favored an approach balancing the Islamic scriptures and science.^[18] The course at theMadrasa Rahimiya prescribed 2 books on grammar, 1 book on philosophy, 2 books on logic, 2 books on astronomy and mathematics, and 5 books on mysticism.^[18] Another centre of prominence arose in Lucknow under Mulla Nizamuddin Sahlawi, who educated at the Firangi Mahal and prescribed a course called the Dars-i-Nizami which combined traditional studies with modern and laid emphasis on logic.^[18]

The education system under the rule of Akbar adopted an inclusive approach with the monarch favoring additional courses: medicine, agriculture, geography, and even from texts from other languages and religions, such as Patanjali's work in Sanskrit.^[19]The traditional science in this period was influenced by the ideas of Aristotle, Bhāskara II, Charaka and Ibn Sina.^[20] This inclusive approach was not uncommon in Mughal India.^[18] The more conservative monarch Aurangzeb also favored teaching of subjects which could be applied to administration.^[18] The Mughals, in fact, adopted a liberal approach to sciences and as contact with Persia increased the more intolerant Ottoman school of manqul education came to be gradually substituted by the more relaxed maqul school.^[21]

The Middle Ages also saw the rise of private tuition in India.^[20] A tutor, or Riyazi, was an educated professional who could earn a suitable living by performing tasks such as creating calendars or generating revenue estimates for nobility.^[20] Another trend in this era is the mobility among professions, exemplified by Qaim Khan, a prince famous for his mastery in crafting leather shoes and forging cannons.^[20]