Outline : School organization and classroom management

After completing the course the students will be able to:

 Understand the concept of organization and management

 Use management skills effectively

 Apply a systematic approach to all tasks and assignments

 Maintain, organize and make best use of the resources available

 Keep the classroom environment conducive to learning

Unit 1 Principles of Organization 

1.1 Meaning and scope of school organization

1.2 Importance and advantages of school organization

1.3 Fundamental principles of school organization

Unit 2 School Administration and Supervision 

2.1 Types of administration

2.2 Democratic concept of school administration and supervision

2.3 Supervision as improvement of instruction

Unit 3 School Organization and Human Relation

3.1 Concept of human relation

3.2 Importance and role of human relation in effective organization

3.3 Coordination and understanding between: Headmaster and teacher,

Teacher and student, Teacher and teacher, Teacher and parents

4.1 Definition and purpose of school discipline

4.2 Factors affecting school discipline

4.3 Old versus modern concept of school discipline

Unit 5 Organizational Structure of School System 

5.1 Organization of education at federal and Provincial levels

5.2 Administration of educational agencies

5.3 Role of private sector in the development of education

5.4 School administration under devolution of power plans at district level.

Unit 6 Classroom Management

6.2 Need for classification

6.4 Merits and demerits of classification

6.5 Physical environment of the classroom and its effect on learning

Unit 7 Management of Physical Facilities and Learning Resources

7.1 Concept of physical facilities

7.2 Types of physical facilities and their function: School building, Hostel,

7.3 Learning resources: Library, A.V. Aids & Instructional Material

Unit 8 Management of Co-Curricular Activities

8.1 Definition of co-curricular activities

8.2 Scope and value of co-curricular activities

8.3 Basic principles of organizing co-curricular activities

8.4 Types of co-curricular activities.

9.1 Rules regarding appointment, leaves, pay etc.

9.2 Efficiency and Discipline rules.

9.3 Powers of different authorities education cadre.

9.5 School Records (attendance register, leave register, stock register and cash register

Suggested Readings:

 Teaching of School organization & Classroom Management Code No. 513 Allama

 School Organization & Classroom Management By S.M. Shahid, Published by

 Farooq. R.A. (1994) Education system in Pakistan: Issues and Problems, Islamabad:

Asia Society for Promotion of Innovation and Reform in Education.

 Nwanko, John I. (1982) Educational Administration, New Delhi: Vikas Publishing

 Orlosky, Donald E. et al. (1984) Educational Administration Today, Colombus:

 Burden, R.P. (1995) Classroom Management and Discipline: Methods to Facilitate

Cooperative Instruction, New York: Longman.

 Daries, L (1995) Beyond Authoritarian School Management. Tuknall, London:

 Jones V.F. & Sons L.S. (1990) Comprehensive Classroom Management Motivation

and Managing student (3rd Edition).

 Afridi Arbab, (1998), School Organisation Ijaz Printers Pakistan.

Notes prepared by Sir Abbas of NTI   Download 

SCHOOL SUPERVISION

The term supervision is derived from word “Super video” meaning to oversee. It is an interaction between at least two persons for the improvement of an activity. It is also a combination or integration of processes, procedures and conditions that are consciously designed to advance the work effectiveness of individuals and group.
 Adepoju (1998) defines school supervision as the process of bringing about improvement in instruction by working with people who are working with pupils. It has also been described as a process of stimulating growth and a means of helping teachers to achieve excellence in teaching. Supervision in school therefore is a vital process and combination of activities which is concerned with the teaching and improvement of the teaching in the school framework.
Supervision of any school ordinarily refers to the improvement of the total teaching-learning situation and the conditions that affect them. It is a socialized functions designs to improve instruction by working with the people who are working with the students/pupils
. Supervision can also be defined in terms of function and purposes for which it shall be used as
a) skills in leadership,
 b) skills in human relation,
c) skill in group process,
 d) skill in personnel administration and
e) skill in evaluation.
\Supervision is a way of stimulating, guiding, improving, refreshing and encouraging and overseeing certain group with the hope of seeking their cooperation in order for the supervisors to be successful in their task of supervision. Supervision is essentially the practice of monitoring the performance of school staff, noting the merit and demerits and using befitting and amicable techniques to improve the flaws while still improving on the merits thereby increasing the standard of schools and achieving educational goals.

Scope of School Supervision 
The major functions logically under school supervision can be cited as:
 Inspection. This is actually a study of school conditions, to discover problems or defects of the students, teachers, equipment, school curriculum, objectives and methods. This could be done via actual observation, educational tests, conference, questionnaires and checklists.
Research. This has something to do to remedy the weaknesses of the solution to solve problems discovered. The supervisor should conduct research to discover means, methods and procedure fundamental to the success of supervision. The solutions discovered are then passed on the teachers. Training. This is acquainting teachers with solutions discovered in research through training. Training may take the form of demonstration teaching, workshops, seminars, classroom observations, individual or group conferences, professional classes or the use of bulletin board and circulars, and writing suggestions in BPS Form 178
. Guidance. Guidance involved personal help given by someone. It is the function of supervision to stimulate, direct, guide and encourage the teachers to apply instructional procedures, techniques, principles and devices.
Evaluation. As an ultimate function of supervision, evaluation appraises the outcomes and the factors conditioning the outcomes of instructions and to improve the products and processes of instructions.

Activities of supervision. 
The activities logically that are falling under supervision can be enumerated as:
 1. survey of the school system;
 2. improvement of classroom teaching;
 3. in-service education of teachers;
 4. selecting and organizing materials for instructions;
5. researching the problems of teaching;
6. determining the desirable physical condition of teaching and
7. performing semi-administrative duties.
Types of School Supervision: The types of school supervision that can be cited are in terms of: Laissez-faire type. This type of supervision utilizes inspectorial supervisory methods unaided by any objective control, in which the teachers are observed, but noting is done to help them improve the work they are doing. In other words. The teachers are left free; they are not to be imposed upon or directed.
Coercive type. This type of supervision is the opposite of the laissez-faire. The supervisor visits the teachers in order to observe them. The teachers acquired ready-made-procedure or standard prescribed by the supervisors.
Training and guidance type. This type of supervision emphasizes the improvements of teachers as well as her technique through direction, training and guidance
. Democratic leadership type. It consists of the teacher’s cooperation in the formulation of policies, plans and procedures. Supervisor observes teacher inside the classroom setting with the aim of improving the teaching-learning situation via cooperation process or group action. The teachers, supervisors and administrators are regarded as co-workers in a common task.

The major functions of school administration

Some of the major functions of administration can be cited:
1. Planning of school programs and activities … plan to show objectives, instructional materials and the procedures and the means to attain set-objective.
 2. Directing school work and formulating and executing educational policies … that is decision-making, who to carry out plans, who teaches what; and working out policies and regulations for all those in the organization.
3. Coordinating administrative and supervisory activities … in terms of harmonizing educational activities and makes them instruments for yielding outcomes.
4. Providing the necessary leadership. 
5. Evaluating the teaching personnel and school program … as an administrative function includes teacher performance rating and school survey;
and  6. Keeping records and reporting results … in that, records are kept for comparison and evaluation purposes; and reporting results to public will help them understand what the school can do and are doing.

Operational Areas of School Administration 
The operational areas within which school administration operates can be specified as:
1.) Administration of school personnel,
2.) School finance and budget management,
 3.) School plant management,
 4.) Curriculum organization and management,
5.) Guidance and discipline,
 6.) School and community relation,
7.) Non-formal education; and
8.) Evaluating results of school administration.

Principles of School Organization

Protection of Social Values
The first principal of School Organization is to protect social values . being a component of  the society , It must be preventive of general and specific aims of the society . 

Achievement of Specific Aims
The school must monitor the specific aims, effective and efficient teaching and developing with the  ideology of Pakistan  

Interest of individual differences of child 
all children in school does not have equal abilities so this factor should be kept in mind . and organization should be made in such away that each child get opportunity to develop their inner potentials. 

Co-operation with Society
A school can never go through progress until the individual of the society develop a positive attitude toward the school. 

The organization must be flexible
It should be flexible and balanced because the society always tends to changes  and the need of the human being also changes with time. 

Comprehensiveness
Each and every aspect of the activity should be comprehensive and a clear picture of the organization should be presented  

Utility 
 Utilization of all the possible resources help in achieving the goals 

Adaptability
It can facilitate our activities . The power of adaptability is the key of success 

Professional Growth
Teacher and other worker should be given a proper training facilitation for better performance 

Accountability 
Analysis of the activities of the staff give a positive result to organization. The principal should encourage hard worker and and a sign of alertness for the rest.  

Simplicity
Medium instruction should be in easy way. 

Reforms / Amendments  
The door for reforms and ammendment shuld always be open        

Unit 1: School Organization and Management

Meaning of Management
It is a social process which is designed to insure co-operation , participation , intervention, and involvement of other people in the effective achievement of determined objectives
Management is a fundamental instrument and economical use of time , money and materials.
It is a process by which a manger can change the behaviour of his/her co-worker to achieve the objective of organization.

Concept of management in school
In the past management techniques were applied in education which was enough to run a small size institution. The rapid expansion in educational institutions have led to the public authorities, assuming an increased role in managing educational institutes. They have complex and difficult task on their hand. They have to solve the problem

• Defining the purpose of education
• The conflict between invasion and tradition
• The tension between different section of staff and students
• Attaining a balance among different objectives of education in each stage. 

what is organization ?

Its is a formal relation co-ordination , co-operation between various activities. 

When two or more than two individuals struggle for common goals and objectives it form and organization . This type of struggle may be temporary of permanent. Organization usually contain distribution of work , communication and discipline. The success of an organization depend upon the achievement of goals and objectives and the standard of work.
Meaning :
a) Organization means way of arranging .  How to arrange various materials inside the school. How these can be used in a better way for educational objectives.
b) It means a pre-planned programme for institute to rum it in a peaceful , pleasant educational atmosphere.
c) To arrange all the  activities of school with mutual co-operation and understanding. this will lead to better training of the individual .
Scope of School Organization
The scope of school organization is very vast. It includes; Role of School Plant, organization of school life, Relationship of the school and community , Co-curricular activities, the school curriculum.
Role of School Plant
It is a comprehensive term which means, building, playground, furniture, equipment, library, laboratory etc. all those physical facilities which are required for achieving various objectives of the school organization constitutes the school plant. Optimum utilization of school plant helps in achieving fruitful results and desired objectives.
 Relationship of the School and Community
The school bear the most intimate relationship with the community.The modern idea is that the school as a community center. Education is not to be regarded as an isolated activity.
Functions should be arranged that can attract community toward school. Parent teacher relationship should be encouraged . Adult participation at evening time in various social activities can put a good impact educational process and motivation.
Co-curricular Activities 
On of the most important activity of the school organization training of its pupil in the gracious art of living . That the art living is the most comprehensive concept than the organization of knowledge.
Co-curricular activities involves games, sports, scouting, hiking, debates, essay writing, workshops, symposiums, Naat competitions, discussion, seminars which play their important role for comprehensive development of the personality of the child.
The School Curriculum.

Our most important objective of the school organization is achieved through proper curriculum . The primary objective of which is the transmission of tradition  and preparation of social ideals. 

it is sad commentary on education of Pakistan that the ideology  , culture , myth , and religion have found no prominent place in our schools .  

Principles of School Organization | Next
 





  

Mid Term Paper Fall 2014 :Perspective of Education in Pakistan

Time : 1.5    B.Ed
Marks :15
Note : Attempt all the questions
Q.1. Explain the main feature of Muslim education before the British rule ?
Q.2. Discuss the impact of Aligarh educational movement in the sub continent ?
Q.3. Explain the achievement of National Education policy 1972-80 ?

Impact of British rule on the social – economic condition of the Muslims.

The War of Independence 1857 ended in disaster for the Muslims. The British chose to believe that the Muslims were responsible for the anti-British uprising; therefore they made them the subject of ruthless punishments and merciless vengeance. The British had always looked upon the Muslims as their adversaries because they had ousted them from power. With the rebellion of 1857, this feeling was intensified and every attempt was made to ruin and suppress the Muslims forever. Their efforts resulted in the liquidation of the Mughal rule and the Sub-continent came directly under the British crown. 
After dislodging the Muslim rulers from the throne, the new rulers, the British, implemented a new educational policy with drastic changes. The policy banned Arabic, Persian and religious education in schools and made English not only the medium of instruction but also the official language in 1835. This spawned a negative attitude amongst the Muslims towards everything modern and western, and a disinclination to make use of the opportunities available under the new regime. This tendency, had it continued for long, would have proven disastrous for the Muslim community. 

Introduction of Western education during the British rule

Colonial Era

The colonial era saw huge differences of opinion among the colonialists themselves about education for Indians. This was divided into two schools - the orientalists, who believed that education should happen in Indian languages (of which they favoured classical or court languages like Sanskrit or Persian) or utilitarians (also called anglicists) like Thomas Babington Macaulay, who strongly believed that India had nothing to teach its own subjects and the best education for them should happen in English. Thomas Babington Macaulay introduced English education in India, especially through his famous minute of February 1835. He called an educational system that would create a class of anglicised Indians who would serve as cultural intermediaries between the British and the Indians. Macaulay succeeded in implementing ideas previously put forward by Lord William Bentinck, the governor general since 1829. Bentinck favoured the replacement of Persian by English as the official language, the use of English as the medium of instruction, and the training of English-speaking Indians as teachers. He was inspired by utilitarian ideas and called for "useful learning." However, Bentinck's ideas were rejected by the Court of Directors of the East India Company and he retired as governor general.
Frykenberg examines the 1784 to 1854 period to argue that education helped integrate the diverse elements Indian society, thereby creating a new common bond from among conflicting loyalties. The native elite demanded modern education. The University of Madras, founded in 1857, became the single most important recruiting ground for generations of ever more highly trained officials. This exclusive and select leadership was almost entirely "clean-caste" and mainly Brahman. It held sway in both the imperial administration and within princely governments to the south. The position of this mandarin class was never seriously challenged until well into the twentieth century
In 1857 three universities were established in the "presidency" cities of Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras, producing not only the subordinate bureaucrats as intended but also hundreds of university graduates wanting to take up higher education in the social sciences, humanities, and natural sciences.

Main Features of Muslim Education System in India

Muslim education system was essentially religious in character. It was patronized by the Muslim rulers who held orthodox views regarding perpetuating Muslim faith in lands they invaded and settled.

The educational institutions they founded became strongholds of Muslim orthodoxy. The sole aim of Muslim education became spread of Islam, perpetuation and preservation of Muslim culture.

Religious Influence

The education of this period was profoundly influenced by Islam. Every Muslim sought education for the purpose of searching for knowledge and for religious purposes there is direct evidence of the influence of Islam on the education of this period. Students were required to memorise the Koran. Importance was attached to study of Islam. This religious influence upon education was positive proof of the communal attitude of Muslim rulers.

Royal Patronage/ Encouragement of State 

The Muslim sovereigns had a very keen interest in the education of their youths so they founded schools, colleges, and libraries at places where they settled or brought under their rule. Stipends and scholarship were offered to the needy 2nd deserving. Orphanages were raised to help the poor.

The Slave and Tughlak dynasties patronised education very much. They established Madarsahs (seats of higher learning) in its capitals. For example, Feroz Tughlak endowed thirty colleges & most famous of these was Madarsahi Feroz Shahi.

It was a residential university established near Hauz-Khas. Professors and students required residing in the university and conduct government expense. The ruler spent 36 lakhs tanks every year.

Lodis also did a great deal to serve the cause of Muslim education. But the greatest patrons were the Mughal emperors. The credit for organising school and university education on sounder lines goes to Akbar, the Great.

Colleges at Agra and Fatehpur Sikri, in Gujarat and in other provinces were established on his initiative. Curricula were reconstructed and reformed. Hindus and Muslims were treated on equality basis.

Education Urbanized

The Muslim system of education was thus restricted not only to the concerned section of the society, but it did not spread outside the urban areas. It was round about the capitals where the Muslim people mostly lived and so it was in the cities or big towns that educational institutions flourished.

No attention was paid by any Muslim rulers towards educating the masses that lived in the rural areas. By the end of the 15th century A.D. Muslims in India appeared a 'little more than an armed garrison in a foreign country.

Sectarianism

It was only in the days of Akbar that we have the state offering equal opportunities of education to all sections of the society. In all other sovereignties the education system was meant for the good of the Muslim people.

Even when the doors of colleges were open to Hindus, they were not treated on equal footing. The Maktabs and Madarsahs were established to educate the Muslim youth in general-the youth that could help the rulers in governance and administration.

The elementary education was given not only in Maktabs but in Dargahs and Khanqahs also. The very atmosphere of these elementary schools was religious and religious education was at the base of Muslim education. These schools were mostly single teacher schools. Maulvis were in charge of these schools. The education was free. The local community or the state financed the schools.

Madarsahs and Higher Education

The word Madarsahs derived from the Arabic word 'Dars' meaning a lecture. Madarsahs therefore was centres of learning where a scholar delivered lectures to the eager students. The teaching method at the Madarsah was (But students were encouraged to make self-studies in libraries established for that purpose.

A madarsah was an institution of higher learning equivalent to a modern college. A student after acquiring primary and secondary education in a Maktab proceeded to a Madarsah.

Such seats learning were scattered all over thecountry. Those at Agra, Jaunpur,Lucknow,Delhi, Lahore, Multan, Sialkot, Ajmer andMurshidabadwere of great renown. To these, students flocked. Some of the seats of learningspecialised inone particular branch of learning only.

Others were established to teach literature, grammar, jurisprudence, logic, rhetoric, theology, metaphysics, law and medicine.

Among those that specialised in learning in some special fields were the following Madarsahs: (a) Delhi School of Shah Waliullah specialising in Hadi (Traditions), (b) Farangimahal School at Lucknow specialising in jurisprudence, (c) Sialkot School in grammar, (d) Rampur School in medicine, and (e) Agra Madarsah in medicine.

Students to these seats of learning were admitted to become learned scholars in the special branches of learning. They were given a fixed daily allowance for their maintenance as we learn from the traditional Madarsahi Feroz Shahi.

There was a close contact between the teacher and the taught. The teachers were required to reside in the college campus so that they could be available to the students at all hours.

These colleges were financed by the state. Some noble personages also contributed to the maintenance of the Madarsahs. The medium of instruction at all these colleges was Persian. Arabic was taught as a sacred language of the scriptures.

Female education in the Muslim period did not develop very much; yet there were some Madarsahs for women. Miasuddin Khilji of Malwa had one such college at Saranspur which specialised in arts and crafts as subjects of study.

Initiation Ceremony

Just as we had Vidyarambha Sanskar or Aksharasrikarna which was an initiation ceremony at the commencement of primary education in the ancient Indian system, so we had Bismillahkhani or maktab ceremony for beginning the education of a Muslim boy.

The age at which Vidyarambha Sanskar took place was generally five. Similarly, in the Muslim system the age was 4 years, 4 months, and 4 days. It was performed on this day in case of Humayun.

If the boy did not like to pronounce these, he was asked in pronounce Bismiilah and with this his education was considered to have started. In the case of a girl student, a blessing known as Zafarshani was written for her on a colored paper.

Discipline

Just as we had hard and strict rules and regulations governing the life of a student in the Gurukulas or in the Viharas, so we had very strict rules in Maktabs and Madarsahs.

Pupils were generally well-behaved, morally strong and humble. Whenever a pupil was found breaking rules of conduct, he was punished adequately. The type and manner of imposing punishment was left to the discretion of the teacher. Sometimes students were inhumanly punished.

The reason behind such a harsh treatment was not vengeance but correction and preservation of discipline among others. However, such punishment was not given to a Brahmachari or a Pabbajja.

The Teacher-Student Relationship

In ancient India the teacher was treated by his student as father, king and God. He was to serve him like a son, suppliant and slave. No progress in knowledge was possible without serving the teacher.

These traditions went on being observed. In the Muslim period also the student was always humble and polite to his teacher and served him whole-heartedly.

The Maulavi always regarded the student as his son. He had a constant touch with him and thus influenced his personality development. There was "mutual reverence, confidence and communion of life."

Teaching Methods

In ancient India recitation and recapitulation were the two ways of leaning a material. Memorisation was resorted to. Learning in ancient times had to be at the tip of the tongue. In medieval times the student had to take recourse to rote learning.

The child was expected to learn by rote Qalma and verses of Quran even though he did not understand them. Many of these things were above his understanding power.

He was simply required to pronounce the verses correctly. The teacher in the Madarsahs used lecture method. Such, however, was not the case in ancient times when discussions and debates were adopted, as a rule, for acquiring learning.

 Arabic and Persian

During this period, special stress was laid on the teaching of Arabic and Persian, which were made the media of education by Muslim rulers. Knowledge of these two languages was essential for securing employment in government offices consequently; Hindus too began to learn Arabic and Persian.

 Development of History-Writing

By initiating the writing of the history of their period, Muslim rulers helped to develop the art of writing history. Both Mughal and Muslim rulers commissioned the writing of the histories of their period or reigns among the most famous of these are Babar Nama, Akbar Nama, etc.

Historical Background of education in the Indian subcontinent

The history of education in the South Asia began with teaching of traditional elements such as Indian religions, Indian mathematics, Indian logic at early Hindu and Buddhist centres of learning such as Taxila (in modern-day Pakistan) and Nalanda(in India) before the common era. Islamic education became ingrained with the establishment of the Islamic empires in the Indian subcontinent in the Middle Ages while the coming of the Europeans later bought western education to colonial India. A series of measures continuing throughout the early half of the 20th century ultimately laid the foundation of education in the Republic of India, education in Pakistan and much of South Asia.
Early History
Early education in India commenced under the supervision of a guru.^[1] Initially, education was open to all and seen as one of the methods to achieve Moksha, or enlightenment. As time progressed, due to superiority complexes, the education was imparted on the basis of caste and the related duties that one had to perform as a member of a specific caste.^[1] The Brahmans learned about scriptures and religion while the Kshatriya were educated in the various aspects of warfare.^[1] The Vaishya caste learned commerce and other specific vocational courses while education was largely denied to the Shudras, the lowest caste.^[1] The earliest venues of education in India were often secluded from the main population.^[1] Students were expected to follow strict monastic guidelines prescribed by the guru and stay away from cities in ashrams.^[2] However, as population increased under the Gupta empire centres of urban learning became increasingly common and Cities such as Varanasi and the Buddhist centre at Nalanda became increasingly visible

 Education before the British rule , advent of Muslim rule and introduction of Muslim education in the sub-continent

Pakistan traces its history of education to the advent of Islam and Islamic/Arabic culture to the Indian subcontinent with the invasion of Muhammad bin Qasim in Sind in 712 A.D.. By that time, the Arabs had already distinguished themselves not only as conquerors and administrators over vast territories in the Middle East and North Africa but even more significantly as creators of a culture replete with literature, art, architecture, and religious studies. With the establishment of Muslim rule at Delhi in 1208 A.D., the Islamic culture made extensive inroads on the subcontinent, converting a quarter of its population to Islam over the next five centuries.

With the advent of Islam in India the traditional methods of education increasingly came under Islamic influence.^[16] Pre-Mughal rulers such as Qutb-ud-din Aybak and other Muslim rulers initiated institutions which imparted religious knowledge.^[16] Scholars such as Nizamuddin Auliya and Moinuddin Chishti became prominent educators and established Islamic monasteries.^[16]Students from Bukhara and Afghanistan visited India to study humanities and science.^[16]

Islamic institution of education in India included traditional madrassas and maktabs which taught grammar, philosophy, mathematics, and law influenced by the Greek traditions inherited by Persia and the Middle East before Islam spread from these regions into India.^[17] A feature of this traditional Islamic education was its emphasis on the connection between science and humanities.^[17] Among the centres of education in India was 18th century Delhi was the Madrasa Rahimiya under the supervision of Shah Waliullah, an educator who favored an approach balancing the Islamic scriptures and science.^[18] The course at theMadrasa Rahimiya prescribed 2 books on grammar, 1 book on philosophy, 2 books on logic, 2 books on astronomy and mathematics, and 5 books on mysticism.^[18] Another centre of prominence arose in Lucknow under Mulla Nizamuddin Sahlawi, who educated at the Firangi Mahal and prescribed a course called the Dars-i-Nizami which combined traditional studies with modern and laid emphasis on logic.^[18]

The education system under the rule of Akbar adopted an inclusive approach with the monarch favoring additional courses: medicine, agriculture, geography, and even from texts from other languages and religions, such as Patanjali's work in Sanskrit.^[19]The traditional science in this period was influenced by the ideas of Aristotle, Bhāskara II, Charaka and Ibn Sina.^[20] This inclusive approach was not uncommon in Mughal India.^[18] The more conservative monarch Aurangzeb also favored teaching of subjects which could be applied to administration.^[18] The Mughals, in fact, adopted a liberal approach to sciences and as contact with Persia increased the more intolerant Ottoman school of manqul education came to be gradually substituted by the more relaxed maqul school.^[21]

The Middle Ages also saw the rise of private tuition in India.^[20] A tutor, or Riyazi, was an educated professional who could earn a suitable living by performing tasks such as creating calendars or generating revenue estimates for nobility.^[20] Another trend in this era is the mobility among professions, exemplified by Qaim Khan, a prince famous for his mastery in crafting leather shoes and forging cannons.^[20]

Mid Term Paper: Curriculum & Instruction

Time 1.5 Hours   Marks : 15         B.Ed .1
Note : Attempt two question in all
Question No.1 is compulsory .All question carry equal marks

Q.1 Answer the following questions.

1. Define curriculum?
2. define subject-based curriculum ?
3. what are socio-culture foundation of curriculum ?
4. Write two scope of curriculum development ?
5. what is different between aim, goal, and objectives ?
6. What is importance of formulation of objectives in curriculum design ?
7. what is the role of teacher in Curriculum Planing ? 

Q.2. Discuss in detail about the foundation of curriculum ?

Q.3. Write shorts notes on any two of the following ? 

1. Element of curriculum? 
2. Learner-centered curriculum ?
3. Role of several agencies involved in the process of curriculum design in Pakistan ? 

Unite 2 | C&I: Social Foundation and Curriculum:

Social Foundation and Curriculum Culture always becomes the foundation of curricular activities in every society. The relationship between culture and curriculum is described like this: Curriculum is derived from culture. Curriculum is reflection of culture. Curriculum of every culture is different from other culture. Curriculum changes with the changing in values and traditions. The ultimate aim of curriculum is to preserve culture and transfer it to the new generations.

Unite 2 | C&I: PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS

PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS 

By providing a basis for understanding the teaching/learning process, educational psychology deals with how people learn. By implication, it emphasizes the need to recognize diversity among learners. However, it is also true that people share certain common characteristics. Among these are basic psychological needs which are necessary for individuals to lead a full and happy life. 

 Major theories of learning: 
i) Behaviorist theories which deal with various aspects of stimulus- response and reinforcement scheme;
ii) Cognitive theories which view the learner in relationship with the total environment; and 
iii) Phenomenology which emphasizes the affective domain of learning. 
Let us take up each of them in the given order and examine its contribution to curriculum development. 

i) Behaviorism and curriculum 
The behaviorist school, which represents traditional psychology, is rooted in a corresponding philosophical speculation about the nature of learning. 
Essentially, learning is considered a habit-formation and teaching is regarded as arranging learning experiences in such a way as to promote desirable behavior. Further, behaviorism maintains that what is learnt in one situation can be transferred to other situations as well. 
Broadly, behaviorists advocate that: behavior is likely to be influenced by the conditions under which learning takes place; attitudes to and abilities of learning can change or improve over time through the application of proper stimuli; learning experiences can be designed and controlled to create desired learning; selective reinforcement is essential; and rote learning and memorization of knowledge are unnecessary. 
Having thus touched upon the crux of behaviorism, we shall now turn our attention to its contribution to curriculum development. It provides the following significant guidelines. 
A curriculum, according to behaviorists, should be based on the following concerns: 
i) Remedial measures, acquisition of skills, considerations of basic or advanced learning; 
ii) Well-defined, short-term and long-term objectives; 
iii) Appropriate instructional materials and media to suit the learner's abilities; 
iv) Shaping behavior through prescribed tasks, phase by phase activities, close supervision of activities and positive reinforcement; and The Field of Curriculum 
V) Diagnosing, assessing and reassessing the learners’ needs, objectives, activities, tasks and instruction with a view to improving the curriculum. 
We can observe manifestations of these guidelines in the theories, principles or trends related to: individualized education (and to some extent, open system of education); instructional design and systems; teacher-training techniques such as simulation teaching, microteaching, competency-performance based teacher education; educational technology including programmed instruction (which provides, with modifications, a base for self- instructional materials in use in the distance mode of teaching/learning). 

ii) Cognitivism and curriculum 

Today most psychologists explain the phenomenon of human growth and development in cognitive, social, psychological and physical terms. They also note that learning is primarily cognitive in nature. Growth and development refer to changes in the structure and function of human characteristics. Most cognitivists believe that growth and development occur in progressive stages. One example is Piaget's (Piaget, 1950) description of cognitive development in terms of stages from birth to maturity. Most curriculum specialists tend to show greater adherence to cognitivism than to behaviorism. This might be because the cognitive approach leads to logical methods for organizing and interpreting learning; and the cognitive approach is rooted in the tradition of teaching based on subject matter. 
Even contemporary behaviorists incorporate cognitive processes in their theories of learning. Because learning in schools/colleges emphasizes the cognitive domain, it follows that most educationists feel that learning is synonymous with cognitive development. As a corollary, a problem solving approach in teachingllearning gains currency. 
But, if we take an actual teaching/learning situation into consideration we tend to realize that this learning model is incomplete and that something is lost in its processes of actual transfer in the classroom. In reality, the teaching/learning process boils down to the teacher talking predominantly and students mostly responding to what is said by the teacher. 
What should be of concern to the curriculum specialists?
They should be aware of the fact that a school/college should be a place where students are not afraid of asking questions, making mistakes, taking cognitive risks and playing with ideas. Further colleges/schools should be more humane places where students can explore and fulfill their human potentials. Obviously, curriculum has to play a vital role to actually realize this objective. 
iii) Phenomenology and curriculum 

Phenomenologist point out that the way we look at ourselves is crucial for understanding our behavior and that we respond to an organization or pattern of stimuli and not to an isolated stimulus. 
It emphasizes that learning must be explained in terms of the "wholeness" of the problem. Here you can draw a parallel with cognitivism. But what differentiates phenomenology from cognitivism is that the former stresses the affective and the latter the cognitive aspects of learning. 
Because each individual has specific needs and interests related to his or her self-fulfillment and self-realisations, there can't be a generally prescribed humanistic curriculum. Humanistic learning may enhance the mental health of the learners, harmonize personal feelings among students and teachers, and improve various aspects of human awareness among students, teachers, and curriculum specialists, yet its processes rely mainly on personal experiences and subjective interpretations that leave them open to criticism. Therefore, there is a great need to examine and understand what is relevant in humanistic curricula. 
Please note that most textbook writers tend to be cognition-oriented. However, one should propose that behaviourist components are needed for planning and developing a sound curriculum. Further, humanistic components of teaching and learning must also be incorporated into the curriculum. Let us say, therefore, that each theory of learning has something significant to contribute towards explaining various aspects of human behavior and learning.
Basic human needs and curriculum 
Physical well-being and health are generally recognized and frequently dealt with through various programmes such as those on fitness, nutrition and health problems. Mental health needs such as those pertaining to acceptance, belonging, security and status have been widely studied but little emphasized in the area of curriculum. 
In this sub-section, we shall touch upon just two points which concern the topic under consideration: 
i) Self-actualization; and 
ii) Developmental tasks. 
Here, we shall discuss these and draw inferences as to how each one contributes to the enrichment of a curriculum. 
i Self-actualization 
The notion of self-actualization characterizes individuals’ need for self- fulfillment in life by actualizing/achieving their own potential. A curriculum should therefore provide learning activities that allow students to identify themselves with those things they can do well. It should also assist them to succeed in other activities that are difficult for them. Learners are thus helped to find personal meaning in the learning experience. 
Those responsible for curriculum development must pay attention to the concept of self-actualization. We all recognize the importance of school/college and community based goals for learners. Self- actualization on the other hand includes satisfying the desire to know and understand in relation to personal needs and interest. Moreover it has been noticed that when personal purposes are ignored, learners seem to be less successful in meeting the set goals. If curricular plans reflect a balance between institutional and personal needs, the impact on both may be substantially enhanced. 
ii) Developmental tasks 
We can define a developmental task as a task which arises in relation to a certain period in the life of an individual, success in which leads to his/her happiness and to success in later tasks, while failure in it leads to unhappiness in the individual and difficulties in subsequent tasks. This fact is regarded as one of the most specific considerations in organizing tasks. The needs of individuals are governed by the stage of development and age they have reached, and also grow out of their need to respond to societal expectations. The implication is that educators/curriculum planners should understand behaviors manifested by a learner indicating her/his readiness and need to deal with a particular developmental task.
As we facilitate the learners' success in these need tasks, their overall success can be ensured. 
Further, in developing a curriculum, the development of an environment in which learners feel genuinely secure should be ensured. When a curriculum develops such an environment, learning takes place smoothly because the needs of students and what has been provided by the curriculum are complementary to each other. 
In our discussion of the psychological foundations, we dealt with the contribution made by learning theories towards curriculum and also tried to see how much more effective a curriculum may be framed if we consider the nature of basic human need while forming it.