National Education Conference (1947)

After freedom in 1947 a conference was arranged to structure the education system of Pakistan. Quaid-e-azam could not attend this due to illness, but he forwarded his message which later laid down the foundation for recommendations of education policy. His message contained four major aspect;

1). Education system should suit the genius of Pakistan.

2) It should be consonant with our history and culture.

3) It should inculcate high sense of honor and integrity.

4) It should emphasis on science and technology.

The major recommendations of the conference were:

Education should be teamed with Islamic values.

Free and compulsory education in Pakistan.

Emphasis on science and technical education.

Implementation:

This policy could not be implemented properly due to increased number of immigrants and other administrative problems of new born country. So more or less british colonial system was continued.

The article 25-A of Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan says,

"The state shall provide free and compulsory education to all children of the age of five to sixteen years in such a manner as may be determined by law".

Pakistan achieved independence from British colonial rule on August 14, 1947. At independence 85% of the population was illeterate , and the condition of women and backward areas was even worse.

One of the first steps towards education development in Pakistan was the National Education Conference in 1947. The Quaid-e-Azam, in his message to the Conferences said,

"There is no doubt that the future of our State will and must greatly depend upon the type of education we give to our children, and the way in which we bring them up as future citizens of Pakistan ..... We should not forget that we have to compete with the world which is moving very fast in this direction."

• This conference (Karachi: Nov. 27,Dec 1, 1947) produced a strong philosophy of as well as a number of ambitious recommendations indicating the future goals of education in Pakistan Nevertheless, many of its recommendations remained in documentary form only for the lack of institutional or economic resources to pursue them.
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Ibn Khaldun as an Educator

At first sight, the place held by education in Ibn Khaldun's sociology appears uncertain to say the least. What today we understand by the term ‘education'—the replication of individuals and groups, firstly at the level of values and secondly at that of knowledge and know-how—is found in the Muqaddima only in a scattered and incomplete fashion, in an order and pattern whose meaning escapes us at first sight. More important, Ibn Khaldun makes no use of a general concept in speaking of education. This is all the more surprising as he accustoms us elsewhere to a systematic approach to the main phenomena of life in society. However, upon closer view we discover that this ambiguity and these lacunae in fact reflect the state of the Muslim system of education, and we are forced to admit that, in this field as in many others connected with the knowledge of Muslim society, Khaldun's contribution is the most complete at our disposal.

 Learning the Arts
  Ibn Khaldun limits himself here to two remarks: the arts must necessarily be learned from a master; they are highly specialized, and a person who masters one art cannot generally master a second. He does not conceive of technology as a body of knowledge independent of those who possess it. Technique, though understood as something at once practical and intellectual (amr ‘amali fikri), is reduced to a skill that may be learned only by observation and imitation (naql al-mu'ayana).

Training in Knowledge and Know-How

Ibn Khaldun deals with the learning of trades and the teaching of the sciences in connection with the ‘means of existence' argument and the general table of the sciences of his time that drawn up in the last and very long chapter of the Muqaddima. It is not certain that he would agree with our reconciliation of the two, since he sees technology as a field of knowledge and of thought linked to action and consequently inferior to science, which is pure speculation.

 Conditions for Teaching

At birth, says Ibn Khaldun, we are entirely devoid of knowledge; we are still no more than ‘raw material'. We then gradually gain ‘form' ‘thanks to the knowledge we acquire through our organs'. Essentially ignorant, we fulfil ourselves as human beings only through knowledge. Ibn Khaldun distinguishes three types of knowledge corresponding to as many ‘degrees of thought'. There is practical knowledge, the product of ‘the discerning intelligence', which allows us to act in the world in a controlled fashion; then ‘a knowledge of what we must or must not do and of what is good or evil', which we acquire through our ‘empirical intelligence' and which guides us in our relations with our fellows; and, lastly, theoretical knowledge of everything that exists in the world, which we conquer by our ‘speculative intelligence'. Only this last type of knowledge, the subject of the sciences, gives us the possibility of reaching perfection of soul [28].

The teaching of the sciences is necessary for two reasons: firstly, thorough knowledge of them requires a lengthy period of learning that can be carried out only with the help of teachers [29]; secondly, their very development requires them to be communicated to others.

Methods and contents

The question of the teaching of the sciences Ibn Khaldun approaches from his concept of the habitus. In order to master any discipline and fully possess it, he says, it is necessary to acquire ‘a habitus that allows the principles and rules to be grasped, problems to be fully understood and secondary questions to be drawn from principles' [35].

The formation of such a habitus demands a rigorous approach in which must be taken into consideration the student's ‘receptivity' and power to assimilate, together with the quantity of information contained in the subject to be taught and its complexity. Ibn Khaldun considers that the process must take place in three progressive stages, whose object and means he is careful to explain [36].

The first of these is a preparatory stage. Its object is to familiarize the student with the subject being taught and to prepare him or her to grasp its problems. This stage is limited to giving an overall view of the subject and emphasizing its main points. Explanations must be kept simple and general and allow for the student's capacity for understanding and assimilating.

Imam Ghazali as an educator

As an educator, he is the greatest and most influential educators of Islam and has great influence on the modern educational thoughts.
       His educational philosophy based on his personal experience. the philosophy, which he formulated over a period of 10 years, resembles to the Philosophy of Plato. He used his personal experience and concluded the reasons, which he calls sixth sense, which can lead us to truth. Divine revelation (Ilham) is superior to reason but is endowed to only selected individuals called prophets (paighamber). The reason given to human beings also has limitations and can not acquire the absolute truth. Hence, it is obligatory for all human beings to obey the commandments send to us through [prophets from time to time.
     It is very much clear that the educational ideas of Ghazali are deeply affected by his religious philosophy and research. He thinks that human mind is like a clean slate and the teacher can transform it with the passage of time. Plato and Aristotle also held similar views.

The importance of Knowledge:

According to Ghazali, knowledge can bring us closer to God as well as enhance worldly respect and position. Knowledge, according to him is not relative but has an entity in itself. It can raise the status of the individual, create self respect and take him to the highest position.

According to Ghazali, there are four categories of Knowledge;

• Prophetic
• Rulers
• Philosophers/scholars
• Preachers

1.    Prophetic:
Prophets convey the message of God regardless of any discrimination and help to purify the inner self.

2  Ruler:
They use their authority, legislation and rules to train and guide the society.

3  Philosophers/scholars
  Their knowledge benefits only selected individuals but for benefiting masses.

4  Preachers;
They are meant to fulfill the religious needs of the society and train outer and inner self. Their job is to promote knowledge, improve the life of people, and help them to acquire desirable ethics through education.

Ghazali divides knowledge into two types; eg

• Useful or desirable knowledge
• Useless or undesirable knowledge

1.  Useful knowledge:
     It is further divided into two

Farz-i-Ain:     (Compulsory) 
This knowledge is obligatory for all and contains the knowledge of Islam

Farz-i-Kafaya:  (Optional)
This knowledge is optional and depends on the will of the individual. It is further divided into two;

1. Worldly knowledge
2. Religious knowledge

2.   Useless Knowledge:
Although no knowledge is useless, it is not desirable if it can create an undesirable effect such as

• If it harms somebody like magic etc
• If the chance factor is involved like astrology etc
• If it leads to thinking about God. Ghazali says that these matters should be left only to prophets and saints.

Aims of Education:
Ghazali based his aims of education on Islamic ideology. According to him, the major aim of education is that it is useful. The knowledge gained as a result of education should be useful both for individual and the society. It means that the aim of education is character building of individual so that it could differentiate between good and evil and avoids following the evil path.

Johnn Herbart proposed the same ideas about 700 year after the demise of Ghazali.

Psychological concepts of Ghazali:
Ghazali raises the basic question whether the human instinct is based on good or evil. He has presented his ideas in the light of Quran and Hadith. According to him good or evil are not physical and is not instinctual. Humans can be transformed by education and training. Rousseau expressed similar idea in 18th century.

Ghazali seems impressed by the Greek philosophers. According to Aristotle there are two types of creations in the world. i.e. 

Perfect creation: These are perfected like moon , sun etc
Imperfect creations like seed of tree, which is imperfect in the sense that it has the ability to become a tree.

According to Ghazali, human beings are imperfect creatures and are similar to the seed. They have the ability and capacity to become perfect, only the suitable conditions are required. According to him, good character means good deeds.

Ghazali has given the following four ways in which deficiencies can be identified and removed.

Perfect Teacher
Such teachers that have spiritual insight and knowledge and has the ability to analyze deficiencies of others
Close Fiends:
We can identify our deficiencies with the help of our close friends
Foes:
We can know more about our deficiencies from our foes.
Self Analysis:
Ghazali also stresses on self-analysis from time to time.

Curriculum:
Ghazali strongly criticizes the curriculum of his time. He raises the basic question of criteria for selection of subject matter for curriculum. He studied the various curriculum's in his times and reached the following conclusions:

• More time is spent on religious education and worldly education is completely ignored 
• Worldly education is equally important.
• While teaching religious education , a great number of differences arise among the teachers, which result in mud slinging on each other
• There is no. Prioritization and it is only left to the interest and opinions of the teachers to concentrate on certain subjects, while ignore others.

No place for character building in curriculum

Ghazali recommended that curriculum should be composed of obligatory (    ) And optional (               ) knowledge. It should be a combination of religion and worldly education.

Ghazali included industrial education, textile, agriculture, tailoring and hair cutting in the curriculum

This indicates that Ghazali ’s educational ideas are progressive.

Ghazali also stresses the acquisition of philosophy and logic

Methods of Teaching and Techniques:

Ghazali has recommended the following teaching methods and techniques, which are based on psychological principles. These methods and techniques are widely used and educators all over the world agrees with their usefulness.

Teaching  lessons to be based on previous knowledge and experience of the students.

This helps to know the ability, knowledge and aptitude of the learner and helps to motivate students towards the lesson which is very important for the educational process. Johnn Herbart and Pestollozi recommended the same principle about 700 year after Ghazali

Simplifying the lesson:
Teachers should simplify the difficult concepts by stories, tales etc other wise his teaching will not be effective

Move from simple to complex.
This is a very important principle. Some teachers try to teach everything in the very start. This is very dangerous and can create very dull students.

Ghazali stresses that teachers should first teach simpler concepts and when the students are motivated towards lesson, then he can introduce complex concepts.

 Note :  Western educators have also mentioned this principle.

Proper Planning 
Ghazali stresses the importance of planning and advises that teachers should do his preparation before teaching , for effective teaching.

Affection:
The teachers should avoid the use of force . He should be like a father to his students and should use love and affection instead of corporal punishment. Use of force can lead to bad habits among students

Teacher and students should also have good social relationship 

Avoid double standards:
Teacher is like a guide to students. He should not be a hypocrite and should breed good qualities like, honesty, good etiquette, good moral character etc

abilities of students:
Ghazali stresses that while teaching the abilities of students should be kept in mind. Concepts, which are above the mental level of the students will not make the teaching effective.

Female education:
Ghazali ’s ideas about female education are different from modern day. He is only in favor of elementary education for women so that they could play their due role in society. He is not in favor of higher education for females.      ( Rousseau has similar ideas)

Ghazali also stresses acquisition of home-related knowledge for women. 

Physical education:
Ghazali has greatly stressed the physical education for children. He believes in old Greek axiom 
 "sound mind in sound body"

He suggests proper clothing for children so that they could develop and grow properly. He suggests avoid tight and fit clothing.

He also stresses the importance of good and simple, diet for good physical growth.

In short we can say that the contribution of Ghazali to education, what he said later reflected by western educators. That was actually originated in the times of Ghazali.

National education policy 1998-2010

Major objectives of this policy were as follows;
1. To make the Quaranic principles and Islamic practices an integral part of education system.
2. To achieve universal primary education.
3. To meet the basic educational needs of every individual.
4. To expand the basic education.
5. To ensure equal opportunity of higher education.
6. Laid emphasis on diversification.
7. To make curriculum development a continuous process.
8. To introduce in-service training programs for betterment of education.
Suggestions for achievement of above goals were:
Diversification of curriculum.
Expansion and emphasis on technical and science education.
Upgrading the quality of Deeni Madaras.
Teacher training programs both pre and in service.
Introduction of idea of multiple text book.
Development of National Testing Services.
Introduction of comprehensive monitoring system.
Education sector reform 2110---2005
This originated from the policy of 1998-2010 and focuses on development of human resources. The major thrust areas of ESR are as follows:
1. Promulgation of compulsory education.
2. Free text books.
3. Equal access to opportunities of learning.
4. Improving all aspects in quality education.
5. Introduction of new educational curricula.
6. Development of training learning resources and materials.
7. Offering incentives for private sector.
8. Introduction of computer course at all levels.
9. Strengthening of research in higher education.
10. Grant for affiliation of madarsas.
Now a days draft of new educational policy of education is in process of development.

National education Policy, 1992-2002

National education Policy, 1992-2002
This was announced in December 1992. the major aspect, aims and goals are as follows:
1. Promotion of Islamic values through education.
2. Improvement in women education.
3. Diversification of general and technical education at secondary level.
4. Demand oriented curriculum.
5. Expended span of graduation and post graduation.
6. Use of AV aids promoting private sector to participate in enhancement of literacy.
Implementation:
This policy could not be implemented due to change in political scenario of country.
National education policy 1998-2010
Major objectives of this policy were as follows;
1. To make the Quaranic principles and Islamic practices an integral part of education system.
2. To achieve universal primary education.
3. To meet the basic educational needs of every individual.
4. To expand the basic education.
5. To ensure equal opportunity of higher education.
6. Laid emphasis on diversification.
7. To make curriculum development a continuous process.
8. To introduce in-service training programs for betterment of education.
Suggestions for achievement of above goals were:
Diversification of curriculum.
Expansion and emphasis on technical and science education.
Upgrading the quality of Deeni Madaras.
Teacher training programs both pre and in service.
Introduction of idea of multiple text book.
Development of National Testing Services.
Introduction of comprehensive monitoring system.

National Education Policy 1979

National educational policy, 1979
In 1979 National Educational Conference was held for reviewing the education system and developed following aims:
Fostering loyalty to Islam.
Creation of concept of muslim Ummah.
Promotion of science and technical education.
Equal opportunities.
The following strategies were suggested to achieve above goals:
1. Curriculum revision.
2. Merging madarsa and traditional education.
3. Urdu as a medium of education.
4. Effective participation of community in literacy programs.
5. Linked scientific and technical education.
6. Separate instates for male and female.
7. Mosque schools.
Implementation;
This policy was not implemented properly and failed due to lack of planning and financial resources.

Education Policy 1972

Education policy 1972-1980
Salient features of this policy are.
1. Promotion of ideology of Pakistan
2. Personality development.
3. Equality in education.
4. Universal education.
5. Curriculum based on socioeconomic needs of the society.
6. Integrated technical and science education.
7. Active participation of teacher, students and parents in educational affairs.
8. Nationalization of educational institutions.
Implementation:
This policy was a good approach towards betterment, but has many drawbacks due to which it cannot be achieved thoroughly e.g. universal basic education, shift towards agrotechnical studies etc.

Education Policy 1970

Education policy 1970
This policy has following salient features:
Emphasis on ideological orientation.
Emphasis on science and technology education.
Decentralization of educational administration.
Eradication of illiteracy.
Formation of national education corps.
Implementation:
This policy was not implemented due to change in government.

Commission on National Education 1959

The commission on national education is a beacon for educational history of Pakistan because of its thorough study of Pakistani culture and need of the people.
Its recommendations were as follows:
1. Character building.
2. Compulsory primary education.
3. Subject was bifurcated in core and additional subjects.
4. National language as medium of instruction.
5. Focus on science and technical education.
6. Examination system should be combination of internal (25%) and external (75%) evaluation.
7. Elimination of illiteracy.
8. Religious education should be introduced in three stage i.e. compulsory at middles level, optional at secondary level and research at university level.
9. Establishment of university grants commission.
10. Three-year degree program.
Implementation:
Although it was an excellent policy, but it failed due to lack of proper planning and implementation. The proposal of three-year degree program created unrest among students and parents and this was withdrawn.

Mid Term Paper Fall 2014 :Perspective of Education in Pakistan

Time : 1.5    B.Ed
Marks :15
Note : Attempt all the questions
Q.1. Explain the main feature of Muslim education before the British rule ?
Q.2. Discuss the impact of Aligarh educational movement in the sub continent ?
Q.3. Explain the achievement of National Education policy 1972-80 ?

Muslim educational Movement during the British rule in the sub-continent

Urdu-Hindi Controversy 
During the last days of the Muslim rule, Urdu emerged as the most common language of the northwestern provinces of India. It was declared the official language, and all official records were written in this language. In 1867, some prominent Hindus started a movement in Banaras in which they demanded the replacement of Urdu with Hindi, and the Persian script with the Deva Nagri script, as the court language in the northwestern provinces. The reason for opposing Urdu was that the language was written in Persian script, which was similar to the Arabic script, and Arabic was the language of the Quran, the Holy Book of the Muslims. The movement grew quickly and within a few months spread throughout the Hindu population of the northwestern provinces of India. The headquarters of this movement were in Allahabad. 
This situation provoked the Muslims to come out in order to protect the importance of the Urdu language. The opposition by the Hindus towards the Urdu language made it clear to the Muslims of the region that Hindus were not ready to tolerate the culture and traditions of the Muslims. 
The Urdu-Hindi controversy had a great effect on the life of Sir Syed Ahmad Khan. Before this event he had been a great advocate of Hindu-Muslim unity and was of the opinion that the "two nations are like two eyes of the beautiful bride, India". But this movement completely altered his point of view. He put forward the Two-Nation Theory, predicting that the differences between the two groups would increase with the passage of time and the two communities would not join together in anything wholeheartedly. 

Aligarh Movement [1858-98] 
The War of Independence 1857 ended in disaster for the Muslims. The British chose to believe that the Muslims were responsible for the anti-British uprising; therefore they made them the subject of ruthless punishments and merciless vengeance. The British had always looked upon the Muslims as their adversaries because they had ousted them from power. With the rebellion of 1857, this feeling was intensified and every attempt was made to ruin and suppress the Muslims forever. Their efforts resulted in the liquidation of the Mughal rule and the Sub-continent came directly under the British crown. 
After dislodging the Muslim rulers from the throne, the new rulers, the British, implemented a new educational policy with drastic changes. The policy banned Arabic, Persian and religious education in schools and made English not only the medium of instruction but also the official language in 1835. This spawned a negative attitude amongst the Muslims towards everything modern and western, and a disinclination to make use of the opportunities available under the new regime. This tendency, had it continued for long, would have proven disastrous for the Muslim community. 
Seeing this atmosphere of despair and despondency, Sir Syed launched his attempts to revive the spirit of progress within the Muslim community of India. He was convinced that the Muslims in their attempt to regenerate themselves, had failed to realize the fact that mankind had entered a very important phase of its existence, i.e., an era of science and learning. He knew that the realization of the very fact was the source of progress and prosperity for the British. Therefore, modern education became the pivot of his movement for regeneration of the Indian Muslims. He tried to transform the Muslim outlook from a medieval one to a modern one. 
Sir Syed's first and foremost objective was to acquaint the British with the Indian mind; his next goal was to open the minds of his countrymen to European literature, science and technology. 
Therefore, in order to attain these goals, Sir Syed launched the Aligarh Movement of which Aligarh was the center. He had two immediate objectives in mind: to remove the state of misunderstanding and tension between the Muslims and the new British government, and to induce them to go after the opportunities available under the new regime without deviating in any way from the fundamentals of their faith. 
Keeping education and social reform as the two planks of his program, he launched the Aligarh Movement with the following objectives: 
1. To create an atmosphere of mutual understanding between the British government and the Muslims. 
2. To persuade Muslims to learn English education. 
3. To persuade Muslims to abstain from politics of agitation. 
4. To produce an intellectual class from amongst the Muslim community. 
Fortunately, Syed Ahmad Khan was able to attract into his orbit a number of sincere friends who shared his views and helped him. Among them were well-known figures like Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk, Nawab Viqar-ul-Mulk, Hali, Shibli, Maulvi Nazir Ahmad, Chiragh Ali, Mohammad Hayat, and Zakaullah. Above all, his gifted son Syed Mahmud, a renowned scholar, jurist and educationist, was a great source of help to him. 
Syed Ahmad also succeeded in enlisting the services of a number of distinguished English professors like Bech, Morison, Raleigh and Arnold who gave their best in building up the Aligarh College into a first-rate institution. 
A brief chronology of Syed Ahmad's efforts is given below: 
1859: Built Gulshan School in Muradabad. 
1863: Set up Victoria School in Ghazipur. 
1864: Set up the Scientific Society in Aligarh. This society was involved in the translation of English works into the native language. 
1866: Aligarh Institute Gazette. This imparted information on history; ancient and modern science of agriculture, natural and physical sciences and advanced mathematics. 
1870: Committee Striving for the Educational Progress of Muslims. 
1875: Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental School (M. A. O.), Aligarh, setup on the pattern of English public schools. Later raised to the level of college in 1877 and university in 1913. 
1886: Muhammadan Educational Conference. This conference met every year to take stock of the educational problems of the Muslims and to persuade them to get modern education and abstain from politics. It later became the political mouthpiece of the Indian Muslims and was the forerunner of the Muslim League. 
Besides his prominent role in the educational uplift of the Muslims, Syed Ahmad Khan's writings played an important role in popularizing the ideals for which the Aligarh stood. His essay on "The Causes of Indian Revolt in 1858", and other writings such as "Loyal Muhammadans of India", Tabyin-ul-Kalam and "A Series of Essays on the Life of Muhammad and Subjects Subsidiary Therein" helped to create cordial relations between the British Government and the Indian Muslims. They also helped to remove misunderstandings about Islam and Christianity. 
It was from this platform that Syed Ahmad Khan strongly advised the Muslims against joining the Hindu dominated Congress. He was in favor of reserved seats for Muslims and also promoted the idea that Hindus and Muslims are two distinct nations. This idea led to the Two-Nation Theory. 
Syed Ahmad Khan's Aligarh Movement played a significant role in bringing about an intellectual revolution among the Indian Muslims. Thus it succeeded in achieving its major objectives, i.e. educational progress and social reform. His efforts earned Sir Syed the title "Prophet of Education".
Deoband Movement [1866-1947] 
Apart from the Aligarh Movement, there were many other forces working in the Sub-continent that contributed to national consolidation. These were in the form of institutions that grew up within the country. These institutions occasionally held views in opposition to the Aligarh leadership, but they all worked towards a common goal; national awakening and integrity. 
Most important of these institutions was the seminary at Deoband. The original idea of establishing a madrasa for teaching religious subjects was that of a practicing sufi and a reputed saint, Haji Muhammad Abid of Deoband. He became the honorary patron and manager of the seminary, and when ample funds became available, Maulana Muhammad Yaqub, a leading educationist, was appointed as the headmaster. On April 14, 1866, the madrasa started functioning in a small mosque. 
The madrasa at Deoband followed the Madrasa-i-Rahimiyah in its emphasis on Hadith, but it also incorporated many features of the new educational institutions established by the British, e.g., division of students in regular classes, attendance registers and written examinations. By 1931, 900 students were enrolled in the madrasa, including 43 foreign students. 
Maulana Muhammad Qasim Nanotvi, who joined the madrasa few years after its establishment, was very active during the war of 1857, and for a period of time even established his own government in the area. On the suppression of the revolt by the British, Maulana Rashid Ahmad Gangohi, one of the Maulana's companions, had to spend several months in jail, while their spiritual teacher Haji Imdad Ullah had to seek refuge in Mecca. 
Maulana Mahmud-ul-Hasan, who remained head of the institution for 23 years, encouraged contacts between Aligarh and Deoband. In 1920, the Maulana established the Jami'ah Milliyah for students who had discontinued studies at Aligarh during the Non-Cooperation Movement. The Jami'ah incorporated many features of Deoband. 
Another personality associated with Deoband was Maulana Ubaid Ullah Sindhi. He figured in the "Raishmi Roomal Tehrik" launched by Maulana Mahmud-ul-Hasan and left India for Afghanistan during the World War I to organize actions against the British. He was appointed as Home Minister in the provisional government of India formed at Kabul. However, after the failure of the scheme, he proceeded to Moscow and then from Turkey to Mecca. 
Deoband has invariably remained as the central institution catering to requirements of religious education of the Muslim community all over Sub-continent. To a certain extent, it also played the role of a unifying force for them, since apart from the opposition of the Deobandi teachers and students, so many ulema from the same institution supported Quaid-i-Azam, and took active part in the Pakistan Movement under the guidance of Maulana Shabbir Ahmad Usmani. 

Anjuman Himayat-i-Islam [1884-1947] 
For a thousand years, Lahore had been a great cultural and intellectual center of the Muslims. Under the Mughals, Lahore boasted of rapid progress in the domains of education and learning. But towards the end of the Muslim rule in India, the Sikhs devastated large areas of Punjab. The annexation of Punjab brought peace to the region, but failed to create conditions conducive to the growth of intellectual and academic activities. The War of Independence of 1857 added to the woes and worries of the Indian Muslims. The Muslims refused to acquire modern education. 
Towards the close of 19th century, the impact of Sir Syed's Aligarh Movement was felt all over the Sub-continent and Punjab was no exception. In March 1884, Maulana Qazi Hamid-ud-Din invited his pupil Maulvi Ghulam Ullah Qasuri and a number of other public-spirited persons to a small gathering and set up the Anjuman Himayat-i-Islam. 
On September 22, 1884, the establishment of the Anjuman was formally announced and Qazi Hamid-ud-Din was elected its first president. The Anjuman decided to work towards the following aims and objectives: 
1. To arrange for the religious and general education of Muslim boys and girls. 
2. To propagate and defend Islam against the Christian missionaries and Hindu revivalists. 
3. To counteract the propaganda against Islam through speeches and publications. 
A team of selfless workers associated themselves to the cause of the Anjuman. Among them were Nawab Sir Fateh Ali Khan Qazilbash, Mian Sir Muhammad Shafi, Sir Muhammad Iqbal, Sir Abdul Qadir, Dr. Khalifah Shuja-ud-Din and a host of others. 
The Anjuman established educational institutions in arts, sciences and technology for men and women as well as orphanages for helpless Muslims, to which widows' homes were later added. The Moplah orphans, the victims of Bihar and Quetta earthquakes, and later the destitute children and widows of the 1947 holocaust, found shelter at these orphanages. 
In 1885, the Risala-i-Anjuman Himayat-i-Islam made its appearance, publishing the principles of Islam. In 1892, the Anjuman established the Islamia College at Lahore. This was later elevated to degree level in 1903. The contribution of the college to the general Muslim awakening has been great. Its students played an important role in the Muslim national movement in Punjab. In 1939, the Anjuman established the Islamia College for Girls. 
Of these services in the field of education, the Anjuman had the greatest impact on Muslim society and politics. In 1928, the Anjuman expanded its press and published standard works on religious and literary themes, and modern subjects like geography, physical sciences and economics. A landmark in the history of the Anjuman publication was the production of an absolutely correct text of the Holy Quran.
Nadva-tul-'Ulema of Lucknow [1894-1947]
This institution came into existence in 1894 as a result of the efforts of some religious minded government officials, ulema, and sufis, who wished to bring the ulema together and remove sectarian differences. The main work of the organization was the establishment of a Dar-ul-Uloom at Lucknow. For some time Shibli Nomani, Syed's co-worker for many years, was associated with the institution. Under his influence it gained importance, but in 1914 he was forced to resign. 
Shibli Nomani wrote extensively on Islam, highlighting those periods and personalities that offered guidance, and provided inspiration to the Muslims, enabling them to take their proper place in the world. His writings include the series "Heroes of Islam". The first book of this series was "Al-Mamoon", a biography of Mamoon-ur-Rasheed. Other books in the series included the biographies of Imam Abu Hanifa, Imam Ghazali and Maulana Roomi. 
Through his writings, Shibli tried to refute western allegations against Islam and Muslims. His Tarajjum gave a fairly complete account of the steps taken by the Muslims in the heyday of their glory, and incorporated into Arabic, the fruits of the learning of Greece, Iran, and India etc. He took great pains to pick out and train promising youth to carry on his work and spread his message. His basic purpose remained to train and educate Muslim youth so that they could unite and lead their nation out of despondency. 
A magnificent building was constructed for the Dar-ul-Uloom with a grant from the State of Bhawalpur. The tradition of training in literary craftsmanship and style of modern Arabic was inherited by the institution. The Dar-ul-Musannifin, or "Academy of Authors", at Azamgarh, manned by the former students of the Nadva, is a byproduct of the institution.

Introduction of Western education during the British rule

Colonial Era

The colonial era saw huge differences of opinion among the colonialists themselves about education for Indians. This was divided into two schools - the orientalists, who believed that education should happen in Indian languages (of which they favoured classical or court languages like Sanskrit or Persian) or utilitarians (also called anglicists) like Thomas Babington Macaulay, who strongly believed that India had nothing to teach its own subjects and the best education for them should happen in English. Thomas Babington Macaulay introduced English education in India, especially through his famous minute of February 1835. He called an educational system that would create a class of anglicised Indians who would serve as cultural intermediaries between the British and the Indians. Macaulay succeeded in implementing ideas previously put forward by Lord William Bentinck, the governor general since 1829. Bentinck favoured the replacement of Persian by English as the official language, the use of English as the medium of instruction, and the training of English-speaking Indians as teachers. He was inspired by utilitarian ideas and called for "useful learning." However, Bentinck's ideas were rejected by the Court of Directors of the East India Company and he retired as governor general.
Frykenberg examines the 1784 to 1854 period to argue that education helped integrate the diverse elements Indian society, thereby creating a new common bond from among conflicting loyalties. The native elite demanded modern education. The University of Madras, founded in 1857, became the single most important recruiting ground for generations of ever more highly trained officials. This exclusive and select leadership was almost entirely "clean-caste" and mainly Brahman. It held sway in both the imperial administration and within princely governments to the south. The position of this mandarin class was never seriously challenged until well into the twentieth century
In 1857 three universities were established in the "presidency" cities of Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras, producing not only the subordinate bureaucrats as intended but also hundreds of university graduates wanting to take up higher education in the social sciences, humanities, and natural sciences.

Main Features of Muslim Education System in India

Muslim education system was essentially religious in character. It was patronized by the Muslim rulers who held orthodox views regarding perpetuating Muslim faith in lands they invaded and settled.

The educational institutions they founded became strongholds of Muslim orthodoxy. The sole aim of Muslim education became spread of Islam, perpetuation and preservation of Muslim culture.

Religious Influence

The education of this period was profoundly influenced by Islam. Every Muslim sought education for the purpose of searching for knowledge and for religious purposes there is direct evidence of the influence of Islam on the education of this period. Students were required to memorise the Koran. Importance was attached to study of Islam. This religious influence upon education was positive proof of the communal attitude of Muslim rulers.

Royal Patronage/ Encouragement of State 

The Muslim sovereigns had a very keen interest in the education of their youths so they founded schools, colleges, and libraries at places where they settled or brought under their rule. Stipends and scholarship were offered to the needy 2nd deserving. Orphanages were raised to help the poor.

The Slave and Tughlak dynasties patronised education very much. They established Madarsahs (seats of higher learning) in its capitals. For example, Feroz Tughlak endowed thirty colleges & most famous of these was Madarsahi Feroz Shahi.

It was a residential university established near Hauz-Khas. Professors and students required residing in the university and conduct government expense. The ruler spent 36 lakhs tanks every year.

Lodis also did a great deal to serve the cause of Muslim education. But the greatest patrons were the Mughal emperors. The credit for organising school and university education on sounder lines goes to Akbar, the Great.

Colleges at Agra and Fatehpur Sikri, in Gujarat and in other provinces were established on his initiative. Curricula were reconstructed and reformed. Hindus and Muslims were treated on equality basis.

Education Urbanized

The Muslim system of education was thus restricted not only to the concerned section of the society, but it did not spread outside the urban areas. It was round about the capitals where the Muslim people mostly lived and so it was in the cities or big towns that educational institutions flourished.

No attention was paid by any Muslim rulers towards educating the masses that lived in the rural areas. By the end of the 15th century A.D. Muslims in India appeared a 'little more than an armed garrison in a foreign country.

Sectarianism

It was only in the days of Akbar that we have the state offering equal opportunities of education to all sections of the society. In all other sovereignties the education system was meant for the good of the Muslim people.

Even when the doors of colleges were open to Hindus, they were not treated on equal footing. The Maktabs and Madarsahs were established to educate the Muslim youth in general-the youth that could help the rulers in governance and administration.

The elementary education was given not only in Maktabs but in Dargahs and Khanqahs also. The very atmosphere of these elementary schools was religious and religious education was at the base of Muslim education. These schools were mostly single teacher schools. Maulvis were in charge of these schools. The education was free. The local community or the state financed the schools.

Madarsahs and Higher Education

The word Madarsahs derived from the Arabic word 'Dars' meaning a lecture. Madarsahs therefore was centres of learning where a scholar delivered lectures to the eager students. The teaching method at the Madarsah was (But students were encouraged to make self-studies in libraries established for that purpose.

A madarsah was an institution of higher learning equivalent to a modern college. A student after acquiring primary and secondary education in a Maktab proceeded to a Madarsah.

Such seats learning were scattered all over thecountry. Those at Agra, Jaunpur,Lucknow,Delhi, Lahore, Multan, Sialkot, Ajmer andMurshidabadwere of great renown. To these, students flocked. Some of the seats of learningspecialised inone particular branch of learning only.

Others were established to teach literature, grammar, jurisprudence, logic, rhetoric, theology, metaphysics, law and medicine.

Among those that specialised in learning in some special fields were the following Madarsahs: (a) Delhi School of Shah Waliullah specialising in Hadi (Traditions), (b) Farangimahal School at Lucknow specialising in jurisprudence, (c) Sialkot School in grammar, (d) Rampur School in medicine, and (e) Agra Madarsah in medicine.

Students to these seats of learning were admitted to become learned scholars in the special branches of learning. They were given a fixed daily allowance for their maintenance as we learn from the traditional Madarsahi Feroz Shahi.

There was a close contact between the teacher and the taught. The teachers were required to reside in the college campus so that they could be available to the students at all hours.

These colleges were financed by the state. Some noble personages also contributed to the maintenance of the Madarsahs. The medium of instruction at all these colleges was Persian. Arabic was taught as a sacred language of the scriptures.

Female education in the Muslim period did not develop very much; yet there were some Madarsahs for women. Miasuddin Khilji of Malwa had one such college at Saranspur which specialised in arts and crafts as subjects of study.

Initiation Ceremony

Just as we had Vidyarambha Sanskar or Aksharasrikarna which was an initiation ceremony at the commencement of primary education in the ancient Indian system, so we had Bismillahkhani or maktab ceremony for beginning the education of a Muslim boy.

The age at which Vidyarambha Sanskar took place was generally five. Similarly, in the Muslim system the age was 4 years, 4 months, and 4 days. It was performed on this day in case of Humayun.

If the boy did not like to pronounce these, he was asked in pronounce Bismiilah and with this his education was considered to have started. In the case of a girl student, a blessing known as Zafarshani was written for her on a colored paper.

Discipline

Just as we had hard and strict rules and regulations governing the life of a student in the Gurukulas or in the Viharas, so we had very strict rules in Maktabs and Madarsahs.

Pupils were generally well-behaved, morally strong and humble. Whenever a pupil was found breaking rules of conduct, he was punished adequately. The type and manner of imposing punishment was left to the discretion of the teacher. Sometimes students were inhumanly punished.

The reason behind such a harsh treatment was not vengeance but correction and preservation of discipline among others. However, such punishment was not given to a Brahmachari or a Pabbajja.

The Teacher-Student Relationship

In ancient India the teacher was treated by his student as father, king and God. He was to serve him like a son, suppliant and slave. No progress in knowledge was possible without serving the teacher.

These traditions went on being observed. In the Muslim period also the student was always humble and polite to his teacher and served him whole-heartedly.

The Maulavi always regarded the student as his son. He had a constant touch with him and thus influenced his personality development. There was "mutual reverence, confidence and communion of life."

Teaching Methods

In ancient India recitation and recapitulation were the two ways of leaning a material. Memorisation was resorted to. Learning in ancient times had to be at the tip of the tongue. In medieval times the student had to take recourse to rote learning.

The child was expected to learn by rote Qalma and verses of Quran even though he did not understand them. Many of these things were above his understanding power.

He was simply required to pronounce the verses correctly. The teacher in the Madarsahs used lecture method. Such, however, was not the case in ancient times when discussions and debates were adopted, as a rule, for acquiring learning.

 Arabic and Persian

During this period, special stress was laid on the teaching of Arabic and Persian, which were made the media of education by Muslim rulers. Knowledge of these two languages was essential for securing employment in government offices consequently; Hindus too began to learn Arabic and Persian.

 Development of History-Writing

By initiating the writing of the history of their period, Muslim rulers helped to develop the art of writing history. Both Mughal and Muslim rulers commissioned the writing of the histories of their period or reigns among the most famous of these are Babar Nama, Akbar Nama, etc.